{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T13:02:43Z","timestamp":1785416563940,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"eLife Sciences Publications, Ltd","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,4]],"date-time":"2023-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1693785600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,4]],"date-time":"2023-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1693785600000},"content-version":"am","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,4]],"date-time":"2023-09-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1693785600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["R01EY032162"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01EY032162"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["elifesciences.org"],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"accepted":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,20]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Crowding occurs when the presence of nearby features causes highly visible objects to become unrecognizable. Although crowding has implications for many everyday tasks and the tremendous amounts of research reflect its importance, surprisingly little is known about how depth affects crowding. Most available studies show that stereoscopic disparity reduces crowding, indicating that crowding may be relatively unimportant in three-dimensional environments. However, most previous studies tested only small stereoscopic differences in depth in which disparity, defocus blur, and accommodation are inconsistent with the real world. Using a novel multi-depth plane display, this study investigated how large (0.54\u20132.25 diopters), real differences in target-flanker depth, representative of those experienced between many objects in the real world, affect crowding. Our findings show that large differences in target-flanker depth increased crowding in the majority of observers, contrary to previous work showing reduced crowding in the presence of small depth differences. Furthermore, when the target was at fixation depth, crowding was generally more pronounced when the flankers were behind the target as opposed to in front of it. However, when the flankers were at fixation depth, crowding was generally more pronounced when the target was behind the flankers. These findings suggest that crowding from clutter outside the limits of binocular fusion can still have a significant impact on object recognition and visual perception in the peripheral field.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7554\/elife.85143","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,21]],"date-time":"2023-07-21T04:15:35Z","timestamp":1689912935000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/elife.85143","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Large depth differences between target and flankers can increase crowding: Evidence from a multi-depth plane display"],"prefix":"10.7554","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2781-7067","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Samuel P","family":"Smithers","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04t5xt781","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Northeastern University","place":["Boston, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yulong","family":"Shao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04t5xt781","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Northeastern University","place":["Boston, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James","family":"Altham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04t5xt781","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Northeastern University","place":["Boston, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7561-7695","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Peter J","family":"Bex","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04t5xt781","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Psychology, Northeastern University","place":["Boston, United States"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4374","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1167\/14.6.8","article-title":"Characterizing the role of disparity information in alleviating visual crowding","volume":"14","author":"Astle","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Vision"},{"key":"bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1167\/9.12.13","article-title":"A summary-statistic representation in peripheral vision explains visual crowding","volume":"9","author":"Balas","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Vision"},{"key":"bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.3758\/bf03213822","article-title":"Asymmetry of visual interference","volume":"25","author":"Banks","year":"1979","journal-title":"Perception & Psychophysics"},{"key":"bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","article-title":"Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4","volume":"67","author":"Bates","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v031.i10","article-title":"CircStat: a MATLAB toolbox for circular statistics","volume":"31","author":"Berens","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"bib6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1038\/226177a0","article-title":"Interaction effects in parafoveal letter recognition","volume":"226","author":"Bouma","year":"1970","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-011-0204-8","article-title":"Working memory and inattentional blindness","volume":"19","author":"Bredemeier","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin & Review"},{"key":"bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1167\/14.6.7","article-title":"Effects of number, complexity, and familiarity of flankers on crowded letter identification","volume":"14","author":"Chanceaux","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Vision"},{"key":"bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1167\/jov.21.11.18","article-title":"The generality of the critical spacing for crowded optotypes: From Bouma to the 21st century","volume":"21","author":"Coates","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Vision"},{"key":"bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1515\/prolas-2017-0055","article-title":"Examining crowding using a real three-dimensional experimental setup","volume":"71","author":"Eberhardt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Latvian Academy of Sciences. 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