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However, considering the inter-individual variation of the insect neuromuscular apparatus and its neural control is challenging. We propose a hierarchical model including inter-individual variation of muscle properties of three leg muscles involved in propulsion (retractor coxae), joint stiffness (pro- and retractor coxae), and stance-swing transition (protractor coxae and levator trochanteris) in the stick insect\n                    <jats:italic>Carausius morosus<\/jats:italic>\n                    . To estimate mechanical effects induced by external muscle stimulation, the model is based on the systematic evaluation of joint torques as functions of electrical stimulation parameters. A nearly linear relationship between the stimulus burst duration and generated torque was observed. This stimulus-torque characteristic holds for burst durations of up to 500ms, corresponding to the stance and swing phase durations of medium to fast walking stick insects. Hierarchical Bayesian modeling revealed that linearity of the stimulus-torque characteristic was invariant, with individually varying slopes. Individual prediction of joint torques provides significant benefits for precise cyborg control.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7554\/elife.85275","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,30]],"date-time":"2023-08-30T03:15:31Z","timestamp":1693365331000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7554\/elife.85275","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["A hierarchical model for external electrical control of an insect, accounting for inter-individual variation of muscle force properties"],"prefix":"10.7554","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1217-3892","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Dai","family":"Owaki","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01dq60k83","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Robotics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University","place":["Sendai, Japan"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Volker","family":"D\u00fcrr","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02hpadn98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University","place":["Bielefeld, Germany"]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02hpadn98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Centre for Cognitive Interaction Technology, Bielefeld University","place":["Bielefeld, Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Josef","family":"Schmitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02hpadn98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Department of Biological Cybernetics, Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University","place":["Bielefeld, Germany"]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02hpadn98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Centre for Cognitive Interaction Technology, Bielefeld University","place":["Bielefeld, Germany"]}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4374","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"723","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asd.2017.02.003","article-title":"Using insects to drive mobile robots - 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