{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T16:58:21Z","timestamp":1793465901584,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":17,"publisher":"Wildlife Disease Association","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,30]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Chemical immobilization is widely used by wildlife and veterinary professionals for the safe handling of animals. A combination of nalbuphine (40 mg\/mL), azaperone (10 mg\/mL), and medetomidine (10 mg\/mL), known as NAM, is a low-volume combination with field immobilization practicality and fewer regulations restricting its use in the US than some other drug combinations. We evaluated the safety and effectiveness of NAM as an immobilizing agent for raccoons (Procyon lotor). From May 2021 to February 2022, 16 adult raccoons were captured in cage traps and immobilized with 0.3 mL NAM intramuscularly (12 mg nalbuphine, 3 mg medetomidine, and 3 mg azaperone, regardless of body weight). After administration, time to sedation was measured; body temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation were monitored and recorded every 5 min for 20 min. Each raccoon was weighed; the dose administered was calculated (range 2.2\u20134.1 mg\/kg, mean 3 mg\/kg). Mean induction time was 6 min (4\u201317 min); time to recovery following administration of 15 mg atipamezole, 7.5 mg naltrexone for reversal, was 10 min (6\u201318 min). Heart rate, oxygen saturation, and respiration rate remained steady during immobilization. Rectal temperature steadily declined. Overall, NAM appeared to be a practical option for raccoon immobilization, providing rapid induction and reversal as well as adequate sedation for short-term handling and minimally invasive sampling.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7589\/jwd-d-22-00159","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,30]],"date-time":"2023-06-30T09:30:38Z","timestamp":1688117438000},"page":"520-523","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Immobilization of Raccoons (Procyon lotor) with Nalbuphine, Medetomidine, and Azaperone"],"prefix":"10.7589","volume":"59","author":[{"given":"Emily E.","family":"Doub","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alec T.","family":"Thompson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Avery L.","family":"Korns","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher A.","family":"Cleveland","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael J.","family":"Yabsley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark G.","family":"Ruder","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4415","reference":[{"key":"12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Roug, W Lance, T Vroom, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  55, \"Immobilization of American beaver (Castor canadensis) with nalbuphine, medetomidine, and azaperone.\" 699 (2019)","DOI":"10.7589\/2018-10-260"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JL. Belant,  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  40, \"Field immobilization of raccoons (Procyon lotor) with Telazol and xylazine.\" 787 (2004)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-40.4.787"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"WJ Bigler  and GL Hoff  \"J Wildl Manage.\"  38, \"Anesthesia of raccoons with ketamine hydrochloride.\" 364 (1974)","DOI":"10.2307\/3800748"},{"key":"9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Pitt, S Larivi\u00e8re, F Messier,  \"Wildl Soc Bull.\"  34, \"Efficacy of Zoletil\u00ae for field immobilization of raccoons.\" 1045 (2006)","DOI":"10.2193\/0091-7648(2006)34[1045:EOZFFI]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Robert, D Garant, F Pelletier,  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  48, \"Chemical immobilization of raccoons (Procyon lotor) with ketamine-medetomidine mixture and reversal with atipamezole.\" 122 (2012)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-48.1.122"},{"key":"14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LL Wolfe, HE Johnson, MC Fisher, et al.  \"Ursus.\"  27, \"Chemical immobilization in American black bears using a combination of nalbuphine, medetomidine, and azaperone.\" 1 (2016)","DOI":"10.2192\/URSUS-D-15-00018.1"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"BF Miller, DA Osborn, WR Lance, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  45, \"Butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine for immobilization of captive white-tailed deer.\" 457 (2009)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-45.2.457"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LL Wolfe, ME Wood, P Nol, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  53, \"The efficacy of nalbuphine, medetomidine, and azaperone in immobilizing American bison (Bison bison).\" 304 (2017)","DOI":"10.7589\/2016-05-107"},{"key":"10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S Prange, SD Gehrt, EP Wiggers,  \"J Wildl Manage.\"  67, \"Demographic factors contributing to high raccoon densities in urban landscapes.\" 324 (2003)","DOI":"10.2307\/3802774"},{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JR Baldwin, JB Winstead, LD Hayden-Wing, et al.  \"J Wildl Manage.\"  72, \"Field sedation of coyotes, red foxes, and raccoons with medetomidine and atipamezole.\" 1267 (2008)","DOI":"10.2193\/2007-395"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LJ Brown  and SE Jamieson  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  58, \"Field evaluation of tiletamine-zolazepam-medetomidine for immobilization of raccoons (Procyon lotor) and striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis).\" 914 (2022)","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-22-00051"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SK Chinnadurai, D Strahl-Heldreth, CV Fiorello, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  52, \"Best-practice guidelines for field-based surgery and anesthesia of free-ranging wildlife.\" S14 (2016)","DOI":"10.7589\/52.2S.S14"},{"key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DT Deresienski  and CE Rupprecht  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  25, \"Yohimbine reversal of ketamine-xylazine immobilization of raccoons (Procyon lotor).\" 169 (1989)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-25.2.169"},{"key":"7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"CK Ellis, ME Wehtje, LL Wolfe, et al.  \"Eur J Wildl Res.\"  65, \"Comparison of the efficacy of four drug combinations for immobilization of wild pigs.\" 78 (2019)","DOI":"10.1007\/s10344-019-1317-z"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LF Thomas, CM Nunez, RO Dittmar, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  58, \"Safety and efficacy of nalbuphine, medetomidine, and azaperone for immobilizing aoudad (Ammotragus lervia).\" 636 (2022)","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-21-00120"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LL Wolfe, HE Johnson, MC Fisher, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  50, \"Use of acepromazine and medetomidine in combination for sedation and handling of Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) and black bears (Ursus americanus).\" 979 (2014a)","DOI":"10.7589\/2014-02-052"},{"key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LL Wolfe, WR Lance, DK Smith, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  50, \"Novel combinations of nalbuphine and medetomidine for wildlife immobilization.\" 951 (2014b)","DOI":"10.7589\/2014-04-096"}],"container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T05:42:25Z","timestamp":1793425345000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-wildlife-diseases\/volume-59\/issue-3\/JWD-D-22-00159\/Immobilization-of-Raccoons-Procyon-lotor-with-Nalbuphine-Medetomidine-and-Azaperone\/10.7589\/JWD-D-22-00159.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,30]]},"references-count":17,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7589\/jwd-d-22-00159","relation":{},"ISSN":["0090-3558","1943-3700"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0090-3558","type":"print"},{"value":"1943-3700","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,30]]}}}