{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T05:33:33Z","timestamp":1793424813105,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Wildlife Disease Association","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>A retrospective study was conducted to categorize and describe the causes of mortality in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) along the British Columbia coast that presented to the Vancouver Aquarium Marine Mammal Rescue Centre (MMR) for rehabilitation from 2012 to 2020. Medical records for 1,279 predominantly perinatal live-stranded harbor seals recovered in this region were reviewed. Approximately 20.0% (256 individuals; 137 males, 118 females, 1 unknown) of these animals died while at MMR. Infectious disease was the most common cause of death, accounting for 60.5% of mortality across all age classes. This was followed by nonanthropogenic trauma (7.1%), metabolic illness (5.4%), nutritional deficiency (5.0%), parasitic illness (5.0%), congenital disorders (2.5%), and human-associated trauma (0.4%). Pups were the most common age class (87.4%) amongst mortalities and predominantly died of an infectious process (62.5%). Phocid herpesvirus-1 infection was identified in 18.9% of the mortalities, with the highest prevalence occurring in 2019 (30.8%). Fungal disease was detected in six seals: three cases of pulmonary mycosis due to Cryptococcus gattii and three cases consistent with mucormycosis. In six cases, mortality was attributed to congenital disorders. Two of these cases involved axial skeletal malformities that are not currently described in the literature. This is the first study to describe the causes of mortality in harbor seals undergoing rehabilitation in British Columbia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7589\/jwd-d-22-00172","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]],"date-time":"2023-10-24T06:52:25Z","timestamp":1698130345000},"page":"629-639","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["CAUSES AND TRENDS OF HARBOR SEAL (PHOCA VITULINA) MORTALITY ALONG THE BRITISH COLUMBIA COAST, CANADA, 2012\u20132020"],"prefix":"10.7589","volume":"59","author":[{"given":"Courtney N.","family":"Pace","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Vancouver Aquarium, 845 Avison Way, Vancouver, British Columbia V6G 3E2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Haulena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vancouver Aquarium, 845 Avison Way, Vancouver, British Columbia V6G 3E2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hannah E.","family":"Drumm","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vancouver Aquarium, 845 Avison Way, Vancouver, British Columbia V6G 3E2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lindsaye","family":"Akhurst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vancouver Aquarium, 845 Avison Way, Vancouver, British Columbia V6G 3E2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen A.","family":"Raverty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Health Center British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture, 1767 Angus Campbell Rd., Abbotsford, British Columbia V3G 2M3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4415","reference":[{"key":"42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Suzuki, M Kishimoto, S Hayama, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  28, \"A case of cleft palate in a Kuril seal (Phoca vitulina stejnegeri), from Hokkaido, Japan.\" 490 (1992)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-28.3.490"},{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C Anderson, M Haulena, E Zabek, et al.  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  46, \"Clinical and epidemiologic considerations of Clostridium difficile in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) at a marine mammal rehabilitation center.\" 191 (2015)","DOI":"10.1638\/2014-0048R2.1"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EA Ashley, JK Olson, TE Adlet, et al.  \"Front Mar Sci.\"  7, \"Causes of mortality in a harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) population at equilibrium.\" 1 (2020)","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2020.00319"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T Barrett, S Shrimpton, S Russell,  \"Virus Res.\"  3, \"Nucleotide sequence of the entire protein coding region of canine distemper virus polymerase associated (P) protein mRNA.\" 367 (1985)","DOI":"10.1016\/0168-1702(85)90436-8"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Y Berhane, T Joseph, O Lung, et al.  \"Emerg Infect Dis.\"  28, \"Isolation and characterization of novel reassortant H10N7 influenza A virus from a harbor seal in British Columbia, Canada.\" 1480 (2022)","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2807.212302"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Bogomolni, K Pugliares, S Sharp, et al.  \"Dis Aquat Org.\"  88, \"Mortality trends of stranded marine mammals on Cape Cod and southeastern Massachusetts, USA, 2000 to 2006.\" 143 (2010)","DOI":"10.3354\/dao02146"},{"key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Burek-Huntington, J Dushane, C Goertz, et al.  \"Dis Aquat Org.\"  114, \"Morbidity and mortality in stranded Cook Inlet beluga whales Delphinapterus leucas.\" 45 (2015)","DOI":"10.3354\/dao02839"},{"key":"7","unstructured":"J Calambokidis, GH Steiger, LJ Lowenstine, et al.  \"Chemical contamination of harbor seal pups in Puget Sound.\"  43 (1991)"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S C\u00e1mara Pelliss\u00f3, MJ Mu\u00f1oz, M Carballo, et al.  \"Vet Immunol Immunopathol.\"  121, \"Determination of the immunotoxic potential of heavy metals on the functional activity of bottlenose dolphin leukocytes in vitro.\" 189 (2008)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetimm.2007.09.009"},{"key":"9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MC Casans, MI Queipo-Ortuno, A Rodriguez-Torres, et al.  \"J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis.\"  20, \"Specificity of a polymerase chain reaction assay of a target sequence on the 31-kilodalton Brucella antigen DNA used to diagnose human brucellosis.\" 127 (2001)","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00011242"},{"key":"10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Colegrove, D Greig, F Gulland,  \"Aquat Mamm.\"  31, \"Causes of live strandings of northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) and Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) along the central California coast, 1992\u20132001.\" 1 (2005)","DOI":"10.1578\/AM.31.1.2005.1"},{"key":"11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P Cottrell, S Jeffries, B Beck, et al.  \"Mar Mamm Sci.\"  18, \"Growth and development in free-ranging harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) pups from southern British Columbia, Canada.\" 721 (2002)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01069.x"},{"key":"12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"E D'Agnese, D Lambourn, J Olson, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  57, \"Congenital diseases in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardsii) from the Salish Sea.\" 672 (2021)","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-20-00179"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Datta, KH Bartlett, R Baer, et al.  \"Emerging Infect Dis.\"  15, \"Spread of Cryptococcus gattii into Pacific Northwest region of the United States.\" 1185 (2009)","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1508.081384"},{"key":"14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S De Guise, D Martineau, P Beland, et al.  \"Environ Health Perspect.\"  103, \"Possible mechanisms of action of environmental contaminants on St. Lawrence beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas).\" 73 (1995)","DOI":"10.2307\/3432415"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R de Swart, P Ross, JG Vos, et al.  \"Vet Q.\"  18, \"Impaired immunity in harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) fed environmentally contaminated herring.\" 127 (1996)","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.1996.9694711"},{"key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L Dierauf, S Dougherty, L Lowenstine,  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  189, \"Survival versus non-survival determinants for neonatal harbor seals.\" 1024 (1986)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.1986.189.09.1024"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Geraci, D Aubin, I Barker, et al.  \"Science.\"  215, \"Mass mortality of harbor seals: Pneumonia associated with influenza A virus.\" 1129 (1982)","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7063847"},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AK Gibson, S Raverty, DM Lambourn, et al.  \"PLoS Neglected Trop Dis.\"  5, \"Polyparasitism is associated with increased disease severity in Toxoplasma gondii\u2013infected marine sentinel species.\" e1142 (2011)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0001142"},{"key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T Goldstein, J Mazet, L Lowenstine, et al.  \"J Comp Pathol.\"  133, \"Tissue distribution of phocine herpesvirus-1 (PhHV-1) in infected harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) from the central Californian coast and a comparison of diagnostic methods.\" 175 (2005)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcpa.2005.04.006"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"T Goldstein, F Gulland, B Aldridge, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  39, \"Antibodies to phocine herpesvirus-1 are common in North American harbor seals (\" 487 (2003)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-39.3.487"},{"key":"21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C Gravekamp, H Van de Kemp, M Franzen, et al.  \"J Gen Microbiol.\"  139, \"Detection of seven species of pathogenic leptospires by PCR using two sets of primers.\" 1691 (1993)","DOI":"10.1099\/00221287-139-8-1691"},{"key":"22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D Greig, F Gulland, W Smith, et al.  \"Dis Aquat Org.\"  111, \"Surveillance for zoonotic and selected pathogens in harbor seals Phoca vitulina from central California.\" 93 (2014)","DOI":"10.3354\/dao02762"},{"key":"23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F Gulland, L Lowenstine, J Lapointe, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  33, \"Herpesvirus infection in stranded Pacific harbor seals of coastal California.\" 450 (1997)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-33.3.450"},{"key":"24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C Himworth, M Haulena, D Lambourn, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  46, \"Pathology and epidemiology of phocid herpesvirus-1 in wild and rehabilitating harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardsi) in the northeastern Pacific.\" 1046 (2010)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-46.3.1046"},{"key":"25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Huggins, M Garner, S Raverty, et al.  \"Front Mar Sci.\"  7, \"The emergence of mucormycosis in free-ranging marine mammals of the Pacific Northwest.\" 555 (2020)","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2020.00555"},{"key":"26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Huggins, L Leahy, J Calambokidis, et al.  \"Northwest Nat.\"  94, \"Causes and patterns of harbor seal (Phoca vitulina) pup mortality at Smith Island, Washington, 2004\u20132010.\" 198 (2013)","DOI":"10.1898\/12-14.1"},{"key":"27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D Lambourn, M Garner, D Ewalt, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  49, \"Brucella pinnipedialis infections in Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina richardsi) from Washington State, USA.\" 802 (2013)","DOI":"10.7589\/2012-05-137"},{"key":"28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Lander, J Harvey, K Hanni, et al.  \"J Wildl Manage.\"  66, \"Behavior, movements, and apparent survival of rehabilitated and free-ranging harbor seal pups.\" 19 (2002)","DOI":"10.2307\/3802867"},{"key":"29","unstructured":"MD. Lorenz,  \"Small animal medical diagnosis.\"  \"The problem oriented approach.\" 3 (2009)"},{"key":"30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Z Lucas  and WT Stobo  \"J Zool.\"  252, \"Shark-inflicted mortality on a population of harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) at Sable Island, Nova Scotia.\" 405 (2000)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.2000.tb00636.x"},{"key":"31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A MacRae, M Haulena, D Fraser,  \"Zoo Biol.\"  30, \"The effect of diet and feeding level on survival and weight gain of hand-raised harbor seal pups (Phoca vitulina).\" 532 (2011)","DOI":"10.1002\/zoo.20356"},{"key":"32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Olson, D Lambourn, J Huggins, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  57, \"Trends in propeller strike induced mortality in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) of the Salish Sea.\" 689 (2021)","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-20-00221"},{"key":"33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"N Osinga  and P Hart  \"NAMMCO Sci Publ.\"  8, \"Harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) and rehabilitation.\" 355 (2010)","DOI":"10.7557\/3.2699"},{"key":"34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Pitcher  and DC McAllister  \"Can Field Nat.\"  95, \"Movements and haul out behavior of radio-tagged harbor seals, Phoca vitulina.\" 292 (1981)","DOI":"10.5962\/p.352378"},{"key":"35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"PJ. Reijnders,  \"Nature.\"  324, \"Reproductive failure in common seals feeding on fish from polluted coastal waters.\" 456 (1986)","DOI":"10.1038\/324456a0"},{"key":"36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M. Riedman,  \"The pinnipeds: Seals, sea lions, and walruses.\"  439 (1990)","DOI":"10.1525\/9780520320086"},{"key":"37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Rosenberg, M Haulena, L Hoang, et al.  \"J Wild Dis.\"  52, \"Cryptococcus gattii Type VGIIa infection in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) in British Columbia, Canada.\" 677 (2016)","DOI":"10.7589\/2015-11-299"},{"key":"38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P Ross, S Jeffries, M Yunker, et al.  \"Environ Toxicol Chem.\"  23, \"Harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) in British Columbia, Canada, and Washington State, USA, reveal a combination of local and global polychlorinated biphenyl, dioxin, and furan signals.\" 157 (2004)","DOI":"10.1897\/03-85"},{"key":"39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P Ross, M Noel, D Lambourn, et al.  \"Prog Oceanogr.\"  115, \"Declining concentrations of persistent PCBs, PBDEs, PCDEs, and PCNs in harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) from the Salish Sea.\" 160 (2013)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pocean.2013.05.027"},{"key":"40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Springer, JA Estes, G van Vliet, et al.  \"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A.\"  100, \"Sequential megafaunal collapse in the north Pacific Ocean: An ongoing legacy of industrial whaling?\" 12223 (2003)","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1635156100"},{"key":"41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G Steiger, J Calambokidis, J Cubbage, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  25, \"Mortality of Harbor seal pups at different sites in the inland waters of Washington.\" 319 (1989)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-25.3.319"},{"key":"43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M van Wijngaarden, M Geut, J Vernooij, et al.  \"Int J Parasitol: Parasites Wildl.\"  14, \"Determinants of mortality of juvenile harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) infected with lungworm submitted to a Dutch seal rehabilitation centre.\" 1 (2021)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijppaw.2020.12.002"},{"key":"44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H Weingartl, Y Berhane, T Hisanaga, et al.  \"J Virol.\"  84, \"Genetic and pathobiologic characterization of pandemic H1N1 2009 influenza viruses from a naturally infected swine herd.\" 2245 (2010)","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02118-09"}],"container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,31]],"date-time":"2026-10-31T05:13:41Z","timestamp":1793423621000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-wildlife-diseases\/volume-59\/issue-4\/JWD-D-22-00172\/CAUSES-AND-TRENDS-OF-HARBOR-SEAL-PHOCA-VITULINA-MORTALITY-ALONG\/10.7589\/JWD-D-22-00172.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7589\/jwd-d-22-00172","relation":{},"ISSN":["0090-3558","1943-3700"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0090-3558","type":"print"},{"value":"1943-3700","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,24]]}}}