{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T21:56:51Z","timestamp":1791237411537,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"Wildlife Disease Association","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Dystocia, a complication that occurs at parturition, either due to fetal or maternal factors, is uncommon in wild ungulate species because of natural selection against predisposed individuals. Among giraffes, reports of dystocia are rare in free-ranging populations across Africa. This study reviewed occurrence and type of dystocia, and outcome of obstetrical interventions, in giraffes in Kenya during 1991\u20132023 and considered possible risk factors. Only one case of dystocia in a semicaptive and one case in a captive northern (Rothschild's) Rothschild's giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) had been reported in Kenya before 2012. Seventeen cases were recorded in free-ranging giraffes during 2012\u201323 in 10 different protected areas with variable range and forage restrictions, associated with fenced, partially fenced, or unfenced management systems. In the latter period, three giraffe species found in Kenya were all affected, with nine cases in Masai giraffes (Giraffa tippelskirchi) and four cases each in reticulated giraffes (Giraffa reticulata) and Rothschild's giraffes. Cases were attributed to fetal factors, including malposition that refers to the position of the fetus or to malpresentation that refers to parts of the body presenting on the pelvis. Potential maternal factors were not evaluated in any individuals. Based on dam survival, 75% success rate relieving dystocia, through obstetrical manipulation, was recorded, but none of the calves survived. We postulate that dystocia might be increasing in Kenya, although increased reports may simply reflect improving capacities to observe and intervene.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7589\/jwd-d-24-00105","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]],"date-time":"2026-02-16T09:33:35Z","timestamp":1771234415000},"page":"161-167","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Occurrence of Dystocia among Free-Ranging Giraffes (Giraffa spp.) in Kenya"],"prefix":"10.7589","volume":"62","author":[{"given":"Francis","family":"Gakuya","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Wildlife Research and Training Institute, PO Box 842-20117, Naivasha, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Ndeereh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wildlife Research and Training Institute, PO Box 842-20117, Naivasha, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Isaac","family":"Lekolool","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kenya Wildlife Service, PO Box 40241-00100, Langata Road, Nairobi, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ian","family":"Muchina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Kenya Wildlife Service, PO Box 40241-00100, Langata Road, Nairobi, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James","family":"Akoko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"International Livestock Research Institute, PO Box 30709-00100. Nairobi, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Kock","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Scholar, Providence House, Green Hill Lane, Harrietsham, Kent ME17 1NF, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4415","reference":[{"key":"1","unstructured":"D Abate  and T Abate  \"Adv Life Sci Technol.\"  55, \"Factors affecting the survival of giraffe in Ethiopia.\" 8 (2017)"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JS Akama, LL Christopher, GW Wesley Burnett,  \"Environ Values.\"  5, \"A political-ecology approach to wildlife conservation in Kenya.\" 335 (1996)","DOI":"10.3197\/096327196776679276"},{"key":"3","unstructured":"M Bush, DG Grobler, JP Raath,  \"Zoological restraint and anesthesia.\"  \"The art and science of giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) immobilization\/anesthesia.\" (2002)"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SB Citino, M Bush, LG Phillips,  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  185, \"Dystocia and fatal hyperthermia episode in a giraffe.\" 1440 (1984)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.1984.185.11.1440"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"V. De Vos,  \"Koedoe.\"  17, \"Dystocia in a giraffe (Giraffa cameropardalis).\" 199 (1974)","DOI":"10.4102\/koedoe.v17i1.910"},{"key":"6","unstructured":"H. Edebes,  \"J S Afr Vet Assoc.\"  46, \"Dystocia in a free roaming giraffe (Giraffa cameropardalis).\" 287 (1975)"},{"key":"7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Fennessy, T Bidon, F Reuss, et al.  \"Curr Biol.\"  26, \"Multi-locus analyses reveal four giraffe species instead of one.\" 262543 (2016)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2016.07.036"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R Figueroa, L Dadone, L Taylor, et al.  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  55, \"A 30 year (1991\u20132020) retrospective mortality review of giraffids (Giraffa spp. and Okapia johnstoni) in managed care.\" 13 (2024)","DOI":"10.1638\/2023-0091"},{"key":"9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JB. Foster,  \"Afr J Ecol.\"  4, \"The giraffe of Nairobi National Park: Home range, sex ratios, the herd, and food.\" 139 (2008)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2028.1966.tb00889.x"},{"key":"10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ME. Fowler,  \"J Am Vet Med Assoc.\"  173, \"Peracute mortality in captive giraffe\" 1088 (1978)","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.1978.173.09.1088"},{"key":"11","unstructured":"F. Gakuya,  \"Relief of dystocia in Rothschild giraffe in Soysambu Ranch, Nakuru. Unpublished Kenya Wildlife Service field case report of 10 May 2003.\"  (2003)"},{"key":"12","unstructured":"\"Giraffe conservation status.\"  (2025)"},{"key":"13","unstructured":"J Gos\u0142awski  and Z Ko\u0142odziejska  \"Verhandlungsbericht des 26 Internationales Symposium \u00fcber die Erkrankungen der Zoo- und Wildtiere [Proceedings of the 26th international symposium on diseases of zoo- and wild animals], Brno, Czechoslovakia, 2\u20136 May.\"  \"Dystocia in a giraffe and an attempt to raise newborn on cow colostrum.\" 125 (1984)"},{"key":"14","unstructured":"E Grunert, H Bader, L Dittrich, et al.  \"Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr.\"  95, \"Fetlock joint flexion as the cause of a labor complication in a giraffe.\" 315 (1988)"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AJ. Hall-Martin,  \"J Zool.\"  180, \"Dentition and age determination of the giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis.\" 263 (1976)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.1976.tb04678.x"},{"key":"16","unstructured":"\"An evaluation of the taxonomic status of giraffe (Giraffa spp.).\"  (2025)"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C Jacobson, M Bruce, PR Kenyon, et al.  \"Small Rum Res.\"  192, \"A review of dystocia in sheep.\" 106209 (2020)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smallrumres.2020.106209"},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"TD Kaitho, CK Limo, B Rono, et al.  \"Vet World.\"  4, \"Dystocia in a Rothschild giraffe at the African Fund for Endangered Wildlife, Nairobi, Kenya.\" 565 (2011)","DOI":"10.5455\/vetworld.2011.565-568"},{"key":"19","unstructured":"MD Kock  and R Burroughs  \"Chemical and physical restraint of African wild animals.\"  (2021)"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RA. Kock,  \"Rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants virus: Plagues of large and small ruminants.\"  \"Rinderpest and wildlife.\" 144 (2006)","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-012088385-1\/50037-X"},{"key":"22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JF. Mee,  \"Vet J.\"  176, \"Prevalence and risk factors for dystocia in dairy cattle: A review.\" 93 (2008)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2007.12.032"},{"key":"23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Molefe  and M Mwanza  \"Reprod Domest Anim.\"  55, \"Effects of mineral supplementation on reproductive performance of pregnant cross-breed Bonsmara cows: An experimental study.\" 301 (2020)","DOI":"10.1111\/rda.13618"},{"key":"24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F M\u00fcller, M Bergmann, R Dannowski, et al.  \"Ecol Indic.\"  65, \"Assessing resilience in long-term ecological data sets.\" 10 (2016)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolind.2015.10.066"},{"key":"25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Z Muller, F Bercovitch, R Brand, et al.  \"The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018.\"  \"Giraffa camelopardalis (amended version of 2016 assessment).\" e.T9194A136266699 (2018)","DOI":"10.2305\/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T9194A136266699.en"},{"key":"26","unstructured":"TO. Obari,  \"Population ecology of Maasai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi) in relation to climate variability in southern Kenya.\"  201 (2014)"},{"key":"27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JO Ogutu, B Kuloba, HP Piepho, et al.  \"PloS One.\"  12, \"Wildlife population dynamics in human-dominated landscapes under community-based conservation: the example of Nakuru Wildlife Conservancy, Kenya.\" e0169730 (2017)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0169730"},{"key":"28","unstructured":"GR Saha, SK Sur, DD Chatterjee, et al.  \"Zoos' Print.\"  11, \"Dystocia in giraffe (Giraffa cameropardalis) at the Zoological Garden, Alipore, Calcutta, West Bengal.\" 24 (1996)"},{"key":"29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L. Siciliano-Martina,  \"Int Zoo Yearb.\"  54, \"Multi-institutional survey of causes of maternal rejection in giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) in North American zoos.\" 191 (2020)","DOI":"10.1111\/izy.12252"},{"key":"30","unstructured":"SB Snyder  and MJ Richard  \"Proc Am Assoc Zoo Vet Annual Conference, Houston, Texas USA, 26\u201330 October 1997.\"  \"Giraffe dystocia: a retrospective survey and four posterior presentation cases.\" 180 (1997)"},{"key":"31","unstructured":"J Waweru, P Omondi, S Ngene, et al.  \"National Wildlife Census 2021 Report (Abridged version).\"  (2021)"},{"key":"32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DC Williams, PJ Murison, CL Hill,  \"J Vet Med Ser A Physiol Pathol Clin Med.\"  54, \"Dystocia in a Rothschild giraffe leading to a caesarean section.\" 199 (2007)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0442.2007.00923.x"},{"key":"33","unstructured":"T Wube, JB Doherty, J Fennessy, et al.  \"The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018.\"  \"Giraffa camelopardalis ssp. camelopardalis.\" e.T88420707A88420710 (2018)"},{"key":"34","unstructured":"HY Yong, SH Park, MK Choi, et al.  \"J Vet Clin.\"  26, \"Baby giraffe rope-pulled out of mother suffering from dystocia without proper restraint device.\" 113 (2009)"},{"key":"21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LD Mech, SM Goyal, WJ Paul, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  44, \"Demographic effects of canine parvovirus on a free-ranging wolf population over 30 years.\" 824 (2008)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-44.4.824"}],"container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T21:18:41Z","timestamp":1791235121000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-wildlife-diseases\/volume-62\/issue-1\/JWD-D-24-00105\/Occurrence-of-Dystocia-among-Free-Ranging-Giraffes-Giraffa-spp-in\/10.7589\/JWD-D-24-00105.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7589\/jwd-d-24-00105","relation":{},"ISSN":["0090-3558","1943-3700"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0090-3558","type":"print"},{"value":"1943-3700","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]]}}}