{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T21:57:33Z","timestamp":1791237453444,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"Wildlife Disease Association","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The swift fox (Vulpes velox) is a small canid species occupying mixed and short-grass prairie ecosystems across western North America. Populations have declined across a large portion of their historical habitat distribution, mainly due to anthropogenic influences. Although some populations appear to be rebounding, the swift fox is classified as a species of greatest conservation need in Wyoming, USA, due to threats from predation, vehicular collisions, and habitat alterations that increase potential contact with humans and domestic animals. This potential contact with other species puts swift foxes at risk from infectious disease transmission, potentially resulting in morbidity or mortality. There are few published studies about disease seroprevalence and presence of parasites from swift foxes within Wyoming. Serum samples (n=103) and fecal samples (n=113) from live swift foxes were opportunistically collected from southeastern Wyoming (2009 and 2020\u201324) and submitted for testing. Serum samples were assessed for antibodies using an indirect fluorescent antibody test, canine parvovirus (CPV), and virus neutralization tests, canine distemper virus (CDV) and canine adenovirus (CAV). Fecal samples were tested using a standard fecal float and a real-time PCR for Echinococcus spp. and Echinococcus multilocularis. Not all samples could be tested for every assay. Overall, 58 (73%; n=80) foxes were seropositive for CPV, 5 (19%; n=27) for CAV, and 1 (2%; n=53) for CDV. Toxascaris leonina was the most commonly detected (31%; n=44) gastrointestinal parasite, and Echinococcus spp. was detected in one individual (0.9%; n=113). These results reveal previously unidentified levels of seroprevalence and lack of difference between age and sex in this species. Continued exploration and surveillance is needed to assist in determining associated morbidity and mortality and to identify risk factors (e.g., domestic canid, other wild canid comingling) contributing to disease transmission within this population.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7589\/jwd-d-25-00064","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]],"date-time":"2026-02-16T09:43:47Z","timestamp":1771235027000},"page":"126-134","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["SEROSURVEILLANCE AND PARASITE SURVEY OF SWIFT FOX (VULPES VELOX) FROM SOUTHEASTERN WYOMING, USA"],"prefix":"10.7589","volume":"62","author":[{"given":"Samantha E.","family":"Allen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Services, Wyoming Game and Fish Department, 1212 S Adams St., Laramie, Wyoming 82070, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peach","family":"Van Wick","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Services, Thorne\/Williams Wildlife Research Center, Wyoming Game and Fish Department, 2362 WY-34, Wheatland, Wyoming 82201, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dana L.","family":"Nelson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jason D.","family":"Carlisle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Science, Research, and Analytical Support Unit, Wyoming Game and Fish Department, 1212 S Adams St., Laramie, Wyoming 82070, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jessica","family":"Jennings","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Services, Wildlife Health Laboratory, Wyoming Game and Fish Department, 1174 Snowy Range Rd., Laramie, Wyoming 82072, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kelsie","family":"Buxbaum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Haub School of Environment and Natural Resources, Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming, 1000 E University Ave., Laramie, Wyoming 82071, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Austin B.","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Haub School of Environment and Natural Resources, Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming, 1000 E University Ave., Laramie, Wyoming 82071, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph D.","family":"Holbrook","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Haub School of Environment and Natural Resources, Department of Zoology and Physiology, University of Wyoming, 1000 E University Ave., Laramie, Wyoming 82071, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hila","family":"Shamon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Smithsonian's National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute, Conservation Ecology Center, 1500 Remount Rd., Front Royal, Virginia 22630, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4415","reference":[{"key":"44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ET Thorne  and ES Williams  \"Conserv Biol.\"  2, \"Disease and endangered species: the black-footed ferret as a recent example.\" 66 (1988)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1523-1739.1988.tb00336.x"},{"key":"49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JK Young, AR Butler, JD Holbrook, et al.  \"Rangeland wildlife ecology and conservation.\"  \"Mesocarnivores of Western Rangelands.\" 549 (2023)","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-34037-6_16"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Bodgener, A Sadaula, PJ Thapa, et al.  \"Pathogens.\"  12, \"Canine distemper virus in tigers (Panthera tigris) and leopards (P. pardus) in Nepal.\" 203 (2023)","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens12020203"},{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G Acosta-Jamett, AA Cunningham, BMdeC Bronsvoort, et al.  \"Eur J Wildl Res.\"  61, \"Serosurvey of canine distemper virus and canine parvovirus in wild canids and domestic dogs at the rural interface in the Coquimbo Region, Chile.\" 329 (2015)","DOI":"10.1007\/s10344-014-0886-0"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KE Brzeski, RB Harrison, WT Waddell, et al.  \"J Mamm.\"  96, \"Infectious disease and red wolf conservation: Assessment of disease occurrence and associated risks.\" 751 (2015)","DOI":"10.1093\/jmammal\/gyv080"},{"key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Canuti, JTP Verhoeven, HJ Munro, et al.  \"Viruses.\"  13, \"Investigating the diversity and host range of novel parvoviruses from North American ducks using epidemiology, phylogenetics, genome structure, and codon usage analysis.\" 193 (2021)","DOI":"10.3390\/v13020193"},{"key":"10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"HJ. Egoscue,  \"Mamm Spec.\"  22, \"Vulpes velox.\" 1 (1979)","DOI":"10.2307\/3503814"},{"key":"11","unstructured":"WJ. Foreyt,  \"Veterinary parasitology reference manual.\"  17 (2001)"},{"key":"12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EM Gese, SM Karki, ML Klavetter, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  40, \"Serologic survey for canine infectious diseases among sympatric swift foxes (Vulpes velox) and coyotes (Canis latrans) in southeastern Colorado.\" 741 (2004)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-40.4.741"},{"key":"14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"TC Harder, M Kenter, H Vos, et al.  \"J Gen Virol.\"  77, \"Canine distemper virus from diseased large felids: Biological properties and phylogenetic relationships.\" 397 (1996)","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-77-3-397"},{"key":"15","unstructured":"S Herrero, C Mamo, L Carbyn, et al.  \"Proceedings of the second endangered species and prairie conservation workshop.\"  \"Swift fox reintroduction into Canada.\" 246 (1991)"},{"key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MC Jager, JE Tomlinson, RA Lopez-Astacio, et al.  \"Virol J.\"  18, \"Small but mighty: Old and new parvoviruses of veterinary significance.\" 210 (2021)","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-021-01677-y"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MR Johnson, DK Boyd, DH Pletscher,  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  30, \"Serologic investigations of canine parvovirus and canine distemper in relation to wolf (Canis lupus) pup mortalities.\" 270 (1994)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-30.2.270"},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"E Kilian, JS Suchodolski, K Hartmann, et al.  \"PLoS One.\"  13, \"Long-term effects of canine parvovirus infection in dogs.\" e0192198 (2018)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0192198"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AM Kitchen, EM Gese, LP Waits, et al.  \"J Anim Ecol.\"  74, \"Genetic and spatial structure within a swift fox population.\" 1173 (2005)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2656.2005.01017.x"},{"key":"21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DC Kritsky, PD Leiby, GE Miller,  \"Am J Trop Med Hyg.\"  26, \"The natural occurrence of Echinococcus multilocularis in the bushy-tailed woodrat, Neotoma cinerea rupicola, in Wyoming.\" 1046 (1977)","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.1977.26.1046"},{"key":"22","unstructured":"MH Kutner, CJ Nachtsheim, J Neter,  \"Applied linear regression models.\"  23 (2004)"},{"key":"23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u00c8M Lavall\u00e9e-Bourget, C Fernandez-Prada, A Mass\u00e9, et al.  \"PLoS One.\"  19, \"Prevalence and geographic distribution of Echinococcus genus in wild canids in southern Qu\u00e9bec, Canada.\" e0306600 (2024)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0306600"},{"key":"24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"I Lojki\u0107, M Bidin, J Prp\u00ed\u0107, et al.  \"Comp Immunol Microbiol.\"  45, \"Faecal virome of red foxes from peri-urban areas.\" 10 (2016)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2016.01.005"},{"key":"25","unstructured":"\"Stata statistical software: release 14.2.\"  (2016)"},{"key":"26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Massolo, S Licciolo, C Budke, et al.  \"Parasite.\"  21, \"Echinococcus multilocularis in North America: The great unknown.\" 73 (2014)","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2014069"},{"key":"29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DL Nelson, H Shamon, WJ McShea, et al.  \"Restor Ecol.\"  33, \"Post-release settlement and resource selection by reintroduced swift fox.\" e70120 (2025)","DOI":"10.1111\/rec.70120"},{"key":"30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Neuber  and T Nuttall  \"Diagnostic techniques in veterinary dermatology.\"  \"Looking for parasites.\" 21 (2017)","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119233053"},{"key":"31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"TL Olson  and FG Lindzey  \"J Mammal.\"  83, \"Swift fox survival and production in southeastern Wyoming.\" 199 (2002)","DOI":"10.1644\/1545-1542(2002)083<0199:SFSAPI>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MJ Pipas, DR Fowler, KD Bradsley, et al.  \"Parasitol Res.\"  120, \"Survey of coyotes, red foxes and wolves from Wyoming, USA, for Echinococcus granulosus s.l.\" 1335 (2021)","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-021-07059-1"},{"key":"33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Pluemer, S Dubay, D Drake, et al.  \"J Urban Ecol.\"  5, \"Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and coyotes (Canis latrans) in an urban landscape: Prevalence and risk factors for disease.\" 1 (2019)","DOI":"10.1093\/jue\/juz022"},{"key":"34","unstructured":"MJ Pybus  and ES Williams  \"The swift fox: Ecology and conservation of swift foxes in a changing world.\"  \"A review of parasites and diseases of wild swift fox.\" 231 (2003)"},{"key":"35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ER Schauster, EM Gese, AM Kitchen,  \"Can J Zool.\"  80, \"Population ecology of swift foxes (Vulpes velox) in southeastern Colorado.\" 307 (2002)","DOI":"10.1139\/z02-009"},{"key":"37","unstructured":"JM Scott-Brown, A Herrero, J Reynolds,  \"Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America.\"  \"Swift fox.\" 433 (1987)"},{"key":"38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"FM Seesee, MC Sterner, DE Worley,  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  19, \"Helminths of the coyote (Canis latrans Say) in Montana.\" 54 (1983)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-19.1.54"},{"key":"39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AB Smith, AG Wolf, KR Buxbaum, et al.  \"Wildl Biol.\"  2025, \"Heading west: Ecology of swift foxes in a novel landscape beyond their range.\" e01441 (2025)","DOI":"10.1002\/wlb3.01441"},{"key":"40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MA Sovada, CC Roy, JB Bright, et al.  \"J Wildl Manag.\"  62, \"Causes and rates of mortality of swift foxes in western Kansas.\" 1300 (1998)","DOI":"10.2307\/3801994"},{"key":"41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MA Sovada, RO Woodward, LD Igl,  \"Can Field Nat.\"  123, \"Historical range, current distribution, and conservation status of the swift fox, Vulpes velox, in North America.\" 346 (2009)","DOI":"10.22621\/cfn.v123i4.1004"},{"key":"43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"ST Storandt, DR Virchow, MW Dryden, et al.  \"J Parasitol.\"  88, \"Distribution and prevalence of Echinococcus multilocularis in wild predators in Nebraska, Kansas, and Wyoming.\" 420 (2002)","DOI":"10.2307\/3285607"},{"key":"45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Van Arkel, M Kelman, P West, et al.  \"Heliyon.\"  5, \"The relationship between reported domestic canine parvovirus cases and wild canid distribution.\" e02511 (2019)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2019.e02511"},{"key":"47","unstructured":"\"Wyoming State Wildlife Action Plan\n.\"  (2017)"},{"key":"48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F. Yates,  \"J R Stat Soc.\"  1, \"Contingency tables involving small numbers and the \u03c72 test.\" 217 (1934)","DOI":"10.2307\/2983604"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"WR Davidson, VF Nettles, LE Hayes, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  28, \"Diseases diagnosed in gray foxes (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) from the southeastern United States.\" 28 (1992)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-28.1.28"},{"key":"50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Zhao, N Shi, Y Sun, et al.  \"Antiviral Res.\"  122, \"Pathogenesis of canine distemper virus in experimentally infected raccoon dogs, foxes, and minks.\" 1 (2015)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2015.07.007"},{"key":"28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C Miranda  and G Thompson  \"J Gen Virol.\"  97, \"Canine parvovirus: The worldwide occurrence of antigenic variants.\" 2043 (2016)","DOI":"10.1099\/jgv.0.000540"},{"key":"42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D Spielman, BW Brook, DA Briscoe, et al.  \"Conserv Genet.\"  5, \"Does inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity decrease disease resistance?\" 439 (2004)","DOI":"10.1023\/B:COGE.0000041030.76598.cd"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EM Gese, RD Schultz, MR Johnson, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  33, \"Serological survey for diseases in free-ranging coyotes (Canis latrans) in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming.\" 47 (1997)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-33.1.47"},{"key":"7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"BL Cypher, JL Rudd, TL Westall, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  53, \"Sarcoptic mange in endangered kit foxes (Vulpes macrotis mutica): Case histories, diagnoses, and implications for conservation.\" 46 (2017)","DOI":"10.7589\/2016-05-098"},{"key":"36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"BA Schumaker, MM Miller, P Grosdidier, et al.  \"J Vet Diagn Invest.\"  24, \"Canine distemper outbreak in pet store puppies linked to a high-volume dog breeder.\" 1094 (2012)","DOI":"10.1177\/1040638712460531"},{"key":"27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DS Miller, DF Covell, RG McLean, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  36, \"Serologic survey for selected infectious disease agents in swift and kit foxes from the western United States.\" 798 (2000)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-36.4.798"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M B\u00f6hm, H Thompson, A Weir, et al.  \"Vet Rec.\"  154, \"Serum antibody titres to canine parvovirus, adenovirus and distemper virus in dogs in the UK which had not been vaccinated for at least three years.\" 457 (2004)","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.154.15.457"},{"key":"46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R Woodroffe, KC Prager, L Munson, et al.  \"PLoS One.\"  7, \"Contact with domestic dogs increases pathogen exposure in endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus).\" e30099 (2012)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0030099"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Albert  and JA Anderson  \"Biometrika.\"  71, \"On the existence of maximum likelihood estimates in logistic regression models.\" 1 (1984)","DOI":"10.1093\/biomet\/71.1.1"},{"key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"CN Kimpston, AL Hatke, B Castelli, et al.  \"Microbiol Spectr.\"  10, \"High prevalence of antibodies against canine parvovirus and canine distemper virus among coyotes and foxes from Pennsylvania: Implications for the intersection of companion animals and wildlife.\" e0253221 (2022)","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.02532-21"},{"key":"9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"NH de Almeida Curi, AS Ara\u00fajo, FS Campos, et al.  \"Biodivers Conserv.\"  19, \"Wild canids, domestic dogs and their pathogens in Southeast Brazil: Disease threats for canid conservation.\" 3513 (2010)","DOI":"10.1007\/s10531-010-9911-0"}],"container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T21:19:19Z","timestamp":1791235159000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-wildlife-diseases\/volume-62\/issue-1\/JWD-D-25-00064\/SEROSURVEILLANCE-AND-PARASITE-SURVEY-OF-SWIFT-FOX-VULPES-VELOX-FROM\/10.7589\/JWD-D-25-00064.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7589\/jwd-d-25-00064","relation":{},"ISSN":["0090-3558","1943-3700"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0090-3558","type":"print"},{"value":"1943-3700","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]]}}}