{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T21:01:15Z","timestamp":1791234075481,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"Wildlife Disease Association","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Wild Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo ssp.) are a popular game bird in North America. Populations in many states in the USA have been declining due to unknown causes. Concern about potential impacts of disease on Wild Turkeys has been increasing. Lymphoproliferative disease virus (LPDV) is an avian retrovirus initially identified in domestic turkeys in Europe and Israel that often presented as lymphoid tumors and was associated with high mortality rates. In 2009 LPDV was first reported in the USA, and it has been reported in numerous USA states and Canadian provinces, though little is known about its effects on Wild Turkey populations. Our objective was to identify prevalence and spatial patterns of LPDV infection in Wild Turkeys in Iowa, USA. We tested bone marrow from 912 Wild Turkeys that were hunter-harvested (n=907), road-killed (n=3), or submitted for necropsy (n=2) for LPDV. Samples were collected between 2019 and 2021, but comprised primarily adult males from the 2020 spring harvest. We found that LPDV was distributed across Iowa, with an estimated statewide prevalence of 42.9%. Cluster analysis using Kulldorff's spatial scan statistic identified two clusters of higher prevalence (hotspots) and two clusters of lower prevalence (coldspots) than expected. The Iowa landscape is dominated by agriculture (81%) with a smaller amount of forest (7%). The two hotspots were located within some of the more heavily forested portions of the state (16.6% and 7.9% forest), while the coldspots had smaller amounts of forest (3.8% and 0.8%). Our results provide the first information on the prevalence and distribution of LPDV in Iowa and could be used to identify areas to prioritize continued surveillance as well as conduct research on the effects of LPDV on Wild Turkey populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7589\/jwd-d-25-00133","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T08:51:44Z","timestamp":1783068704000},"page":"582-591","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF LYMPHOPROLIFERATIVE DISEASE VIRUS IN WILD TURKEYS (MELEAGRIS GALLOPAVO) IN IOWA, USA"],"prefix":"10.7589","volume":"62","author":[{"given":"Kelsey C.","family":"Smith","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, 339 Science Hall II, 2310 Pammel Drive, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julie A.","family":"Blanchong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Natural Resource Ecology and Management, 339 Science Hall II, 2310 Pammel Drive, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4415","reference":[{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KG Adcock, RD Berghaus, CC Goodwin, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  60, \"Lymphoproliferative disease virus and reticuloendotheliosis virus detection in wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo).\" 139 (2024)","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-23-00012"},{"key":"6","unstructured":"PT. Bromley,  \"Biologist (London).\"  48, \"Lessons from the wild turkey.\" 292 (2001)"},{"key":"7","unstructured":"MJ Casalena, AC Bowling, MV Schiavone, et al.  \"Proceedings of the 11th National Wild Turkey Symposium.\"  \"Understanding the new normal: Wild turkeys in a changing northeastern landscape.\" 45 (2015)"},{"key":"9","unstructured":"J. Coffey,  \"Trends in Iowa wildlife populations and harvest 2018\u201319.\"  \"Wild turkeys.\" 32 (2019)"},{"key":"11","unstructured":"J. Dewitz,  \"National Land Cover Database (NLCD) 2019 Land Cover Science Product (ver. 2.0, June 2021) U.S. Geological Survey data release.\"  (2021)"},{"key":"12","unstructured":"WJ Edwards  and CT Edwards  \"Nat Educ Knowl.\"  30, \"Population limiting factors.\" 1 (2011)"},{"key":"13","unstructured":"RE Eriksen, TA Brown, KB Scott, et al.  \"Proceedings of the 11th National Wild Turkey Symposium.\"  \"Status and distribution of wild turkeys in the United States: 2014 status.\" 7 (2016)"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"PE Goodman, NW Bakner, DL Bakner, et al.  \"Wildl Soc Bull.\"  49, \"Influence of lymphoproliferative disease virus on behaviors of female eastern wild turkeys during reproductive periods.\" e1632 (2025)","DOI":"10.1002\/wsb.1632"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Han, L Zhu, M Kulldorff, et al.  \"Int J Health Geogr.\"  15, \"Using Gini coefficient to determine optimal cluster reporting sizes for spatial scan statistics.\" 27 (2016)","DOI":"10.1186\/s12942-016-0056-6"},{"key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"WM Healy  and SM Powell  \"Wild turkey harvest management: Biology, strategies, and techniques.\"  (2000)","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2328-5540.2000.tb00274.x"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"TW Hughes  and K Lee  \"Int J Envtl Stud.\"  72, \"The role of recreational hunting in the recovery and conservation of the wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo ssp.) in North America.\" 797 (2015)","DOI":"10.1080\/00207233.2015.1022998"},{"key":"21","unstructured":"\"Turkey hunting.\""},{"key":"22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\"Deer & turkey harvest report 2019.\"  (2019)","DOI":"10.5089\/9781513524641.002"},{"key":"23","unstructured":"\"Deer & turkey harvest report 2020.\"  (2020)"},{"key":"24","unstructured":"\"The Iowa Turkey Federation.\""},{"key":"25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"I. Jung,  \"PLoS ONE.\"  14, \"Spatial scan statistics for matched case-control data.\" e0221225 (2019)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0221225"},{"key":"26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"J Kim  and I Jung  \"PLoS ONE.\"  12, \"Evaluation of the Gini coefficient in spatial scan statistics for detecting irregularly shaped clusters.\" e0170736 (2017)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0170736"},{"key":"27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S Kim  and I Jung  \"PLoS ONE.\"  12, \"Optimizing the maximum reported cluster size in the spatial scan statistic for ordinal data.\" e0182234 (2017)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0182234"},{"key":"28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"CD Kreh  and MB Palamar  \"Wild Soc Bull.\"  46, \"Prevalence of lymphoproliferative disease virus in wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in North Carolina.\" e1263 (2022)","DOI":"10.1002\/wsb.1263"},{"key":"29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M. Kulldorff,  \"Commun Stat-Theory Methods.\"  26, \"A spatial scan statistic.\" 1481 (1997)","DOI":"10.1080\/03610929708831995"},{"key":"30","unstructured":"M. Kulldorff,  \"SaTScanTM user guide for version 10.1.\"  (2022)"},{"key":"33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AM MacDonald, JB Johnson, MJ Casalena, et al.  \"Wild Soc Bull.\"  46, \"Active and passive disease surveillance in wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) from 2008\u20132018 in Pennsylvania, USA.\" e1289 (2022)","DOI":"10.1002\/wsb.1289"},{"key":"36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MD Mitchell, RO Kimmel, J Snyders,  \"Geogr Rev.\"  101, \"Reintroduction and range expansion of eastern wild turkeys in Minnesota.\" 269 (2011)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1931-0846.2011.00091.x"},{"key":"37","unstructured":"TE. Nickens,  \"Wild turkey on the rocks? Audubon.\"  (2013)"},{"key":"39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"I Polupan, M Bezymennyi, Y Gibaliuk, et al.  \"Front Vet Sci.\"  6, \"An analysis of rabies incidence and its geographic spread in the buffer area among orally vaccinated wildlife in Ukraine from 2012 to 2016.\" 290 (2019)","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00290"},{"key":"40","unstructured":"RL. Schroeder,  \"Habitat suitability index models: Eastern wild turkey. 82\/10.106.\"  33 (1985)"},{"key":"41","unstructured":"SA. Shea,  \"Retroviral infection dynamics in Maine's wild turkeys.\"  141 (2021)"},{"key":"43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KC Smith  and JA Blanchong  \"PLoS ONE.\"  19, \"Detection of lymphoproliferative disease virus in Iowa wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo): Comparison of two sections of the proviral genome.\" e0296856 (2024)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0296856"},{"key":"46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AL Thomas-Bachli, DL Pearl, RM Friendship, et al.  \"BMC Res Notes.\"  7, \"Exploring relationships between whole carcass condemnation abattoir data, non-disease factors and disease outbreaks in swine herds in Ontario (2001\u20132007).\" 185 (2014)","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-0500-7-185"},{"key":"47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"RM Tyl, CT Rota, CP Lehman,  \"Ecol Evol.\"  10, \"Factors influencing productivity of eastern wild turkeys in northeastern South Dakota.\" 8838 (2020)","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.6583"},{"key":"48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"NA Vogt, CPG Stevens, DL Pearl, et al.  \"Anim Health Res Rev.\"  21, \"Generalizability and comparability of prevalence estimates in the wild bird literature: Methodological and epidemiological considerations.\" 89 (2020)","DOI":"10.1017\/S1466252320000043"},{"key":"34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JL Malmberg, M Miller, J Jennings-Gaines, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  59, \"Mortality in wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) associated with natural infection with H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) subclade 2.3.4.4.\" 767 (2023)","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-22-00161"},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"E Haynes, MJ Yabsley, NM Nemeth, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  60, \"Health assessment of adult male Eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) from Western Kentucky, USA.\" 660 (2024)","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-23-00162"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"BP Chapagain, NC Poudyal, O Joshi, et al.  \"Wildl Soc Bull.\"  44, \"Seasonal and regional differences in economic benefits of turkey hunting.\" 271 (2020)","DOI":"10.1002\/wsb.1093"},{"key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"CC Goodwin, KG Adcock, AB Allison, et al.  \"Vet Pathol.\"  61, \"Experimental infection of domestic turkeys with lymphoproliferative disease virus of North American origin.\" 562 (2024)","DOI":"10.1177\/03009858241231558"},{"key":"35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JS McDougall, PM Biggs, RW Shilleto, et al.  \"Avian Pathol.\"  7, \"Lymphoproliferative disease of turkeys. II. Experimental transmission and aetiology.\" 141 (1978)","DOI":"10.1080\/03079457808418266"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Alger, E Bunting, K Schuler, et al.  \"J Zoo Wildl Med.\"  46, \"Diagnosing lymphoproliferative disease virus in live Wild Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) using whole blood.\" 806 (2015)","DOI":"10.1638\/2015-0037.1"},{"key":"5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"PM Biggs, JS McDougall, JA Frazier, et al.  \"Avian Pathol.\"  7, \"Lymphoproliferative disease of turkeys 1. Clinical aspects.\" 131 (1978)","DOI":"10.1080\/03079457808418265"},{"key":"45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JM Thomas, AB Allison, EC Holmes, et al.  \"PLoS One.\"  10, \"Molecular surveillance for lymphoproliferative disease virus in Wild Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) from the eastern United States.\" e0122644 (2015)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0122644"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Alger, E Bunting, K Schuler, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  53, \"Risk factors for and spatial distribution of lymphoproliferative disease virus (LPDV) in Wild Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in New York State, USA.\" 499 (2017)","DOI":"10.7589\/2016-06-137"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AB Allison, MK Keel, JE Philips, et al.  \"Virology.\"  450\u2013451, \"Avian oncogenesis induced by lymphoproliferative disease virus: A neglected or emerging retroviral pathogen?\" 2 (2014)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2013.11.037"},{"key":"14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Gazit  and A Yaniv  \"Encyclopedia of virology.\"  \"Lymphoproliferative disease virus of turkeys (Retroviridae).\" 911 (1999)","DOI":"10.1006\/rwvi.1999.0174"},{"key":"31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AM MacDonald, JR Barta, M McKay, et al.  \"Avian Dis.\"  63, \"Lymphoproliferative disease virus in wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) from Manitoba and Quebec, Canada.\" 506 (2019a)","DOI":"10.1637\/aviandiseases-D-19-00102"},{"key":"32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AM MacDonald, CM Jardine, J Bowman, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  55, \"Detection of lymphoproliferative disease virus in Canada in a survey for viruses in Ontario wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo).\" 113 (2019b)","DOI":"10.7589\/2018-01-013"},{"key":"38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KD Niedringhaus, NM Nemeth, HS Sellers, et al.  \"Vet Pathol.\"  56, \"Multicentric round cell neoplasms and their viral associations in wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in the southeastern United States.\" 915 (2019)","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985819864306"},{"key":"10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F Cox, J Hardin, R Dittmar, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  58, \"Molecular surveillance for lymphoproliferative disease virus and reticuloendotheliosis virus in Rio Grande wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo intermedia) in Texas, USA.\" 909 (2022)","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-22-00023"},{"key":"42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SA Shea, M Gonnerman, E Blomberg, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  58, \"Pathogen survey and predictors of lymphoproliferative disease virus infection in wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo).\" 537 (2022)","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-21-00152"},{"key":"44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R Thiemann, MF Dalton, H Rose, et al.  \"Avian Dis.\"  66, \"An investigation of the cause of wild turkey mortality in Mississippi.\" 237 (2022)","DOI":"10.1637\/aviandiseases-D-22-00007"}],"container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T20:42:52Z","timestamp":1791232972000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-wildlife-diseases\/volume-62\/issue-3\/JWD-D-25-00133\/SPATIAL-DISTRIBUTION-OF-LYMPHOPROLIFERATIVE-DISEASE-VIRUS-IN-WILD-TURKEYS-MELEAGRIS\/10.7589\/JWD-D-25-00133.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7589\/jwd-d-25-00133","relation":{},"ISSN":["0090-3558","1943-3700"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0090-3558","type":"print"},{"value":"1943-3700","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]}}}