{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T21:57:00Z","timestamp":1791237420805,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":28,"publisher":"Wildlife Disease Association","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Naturally occurring methylxanthines (MTXs) are plant-derived alkaloids, including caffeine, theobromine, and theophylline. Common sources of these compounds are coffee, chocolate, and tea. Methylxanthine toxicosis has been frequently described in domestic dogs and pet birds, but few reports exist for free-ranging wildlife species. From November 2019 through November 2020, we evaluated 24 American White Ibis (Eudocimus albus) and one Yellow-crowned Night Heron (Nyctanassa violacea) collected from morbidity and mortality events along the Atlantic coast of Florida, USA. Live ibises displayed clinical signs of lethargy, ataxia, and recumbency before their euthanasia. Toxicologic assays performed on liver primarily revealed caffeine and theobromine, with few detections of theophylline. Histologic findings were nonspecific and included diffuse vascular congestion in multiple tissues. We were unable to identify the source of MTX exposure in the clustered ibis mortality events, but several cultivated botanical sources (e.g., native Yaupon holly [Ilex vomitoria]) of MTX grow on Florida's landscape. Additionally, caffeine is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant of both freshwater and marine ecosystems, with anthropogenic inputs from sewage effluent and improper disposal of pharmaceutical products and manufacturers' waste. Our findings underscore the need for broad consideration of the ecotoxicologic impacts of caffeine and related chemicals on free-ranging wildlife species.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7589\/jwd-d-25-00140","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]],"date-time":"2026-02-16T09:47:43Z","timestamp":1771235263000},"page":"242-248","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Methylxanthine Exposure in the American White Ibis ( Eudocimus albus) in Florida, USA"],"prefix":"10.7589","volume":"62","author":[{"given":"Lisa A.","family":"Shender","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biological Resources Division, National Park Service, 1201 Oakridge Drive, Fort Collins, Colorado 80525, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melanie R.","family":"Kunkel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Population Health, University of Georgia, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nicole M.","family":"Nemeth","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Population Health, University of Georgia, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Veronica","family":"Vargas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 1105 SW Williston Road, Gainesville, Florida 32601, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sonia M.","family":"Hernandez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Population Health, University of Georgia, 589 D.W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Julia Silva","family":"Seixas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, 180 E. Green Street, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"James A.","family":"Langston","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"California Animal Health and Food Safety Toxicology Laboratory, UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, 620 W. Health Sciences Drive, Davis, California 95616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert H.","family":"Poppenga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"California Animal Health and Food Safety Toxicology Laboratory, UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, 620 W. 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(2000)","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.38.11.4096-4101.2000"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"NJ Dorn, MI Cook, G Herring, et al.  \"Ibis.\"  153, \"Aquatic prey switching and urban foraging by the white ibis Eudocimus albus are determined by wetland hydrological conditions.\" 323 (2011)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1474-919X.2011.01101.x"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"A Kidd-Weaver, J Hepinstall-Cymerman, CN Welch, et al.  \"PLOS One.\"  15, \"The movements of a recently urbanized wading bird reveal changes in season timing and length related to resource use.\" e0230158 (2020)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0230158"}],"container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T21:19:26Z","timestamp":1791235166000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-wildlife-diseases\/volume-62\/issue-1\/JWD-D-25-00140\/Methylxanthine-Exposure-in-the-American-White-Ibis--Eudocimus-albus\/10.7589\/JWD-D-25-00140.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]]},"references-count":28,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7589\/jwd-d-25-00140","relation":{},"ISSN":["0090-3558","1943-3700"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0090-3558","type":"print"},{"value":"1943-3700","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]]}}}