{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T21:01:33Z","timestamp":1791234093572,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":21,"publisher":"Wildlife Disease Association","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Ophidiomycosis, or snake fungal disease, caused by the pathogen Ophidiomyces ophidiicola, poses a growing threat to wild snake populations in North America. We surveyed snake populations in central Virginia, USA in 2021\u201322; no clinical signs of ophidiomycosis had been observed in a survey in 2013\u201314. Across 82 individuals representing seven species, 16% tested O. ophidiicola-positive, including 17% of eastern wormsnakes (Carphophis amoenus), the most frequently encountered species. All O. ophidiicola-positive snakes exhibited skin lesions or abnormalities at the time of capture; no subclinical individuals tested positive. Among eastern wormsnakes, O. ophidiicola-positive individuals were significantly larger in mass and length but did not differ in body condition compared to O. ophidiicolanegative individuals, suggesting age-related infection accumulation. Swabs preserved in RNAlater, swabs preserved in sterile water, and tissue samples from tail tips yielded O. ophidiicola-positive rates of 9%, 5%, and 7%, respectively. The number of O. ophidiicola-positive snakes was too small to formally test for differences between sampling techniques; however, this study supports the use of both swab samples and tissues. We tentatively suggest emergence of O. ophidiicola in our study site sometime between 2014 and 2021, or environmental changes during this period that altered pathogen load and\/or host immune status. Our results provide the most extensive dataset to date on O. ophidiicola prevalence in C. amoenus and underscore the need for continued monitoring in fossorial species.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7589\/jwd-d-25-00156","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,6]],"date-time":"2026-07-06T22:09:48Z","timestamp":1783375788000},"page":"690-695","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Surveillance of Ophidiomyces ophidiicola in Snakes, Primarily Eastern Wormsnakes (Carphophis amoenus), in Central Virginia, USA, Based on Swab and Tissue Sampling"],"prefix":"10.7589","volume":"62","author":[{"given":"Rachel M.","family":"Goodman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"172 Via Sacra, Brown Student Center, Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Virginia 23943, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"R. Paul","family":"Mahaffy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Doctor of Physical Therapy Program, University of Lynchburg, 1501 Lakeside Drive, Lynchburg, Virginia 24501, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Henry R.","family":"Carman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"172 Via Sacra, Brown Student Center, Hampden-Sydney College, Hampden-Sydney, Virginia 23943, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nathan S.","family":"Cabrera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Crewe Medical Center, 12522 W Colonial Trail Hwy, Crewe, Virginia 23930, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ga\u00eblle","family":"Blanvillain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Virginia Tech, Biological Sciences Department, 1015 Life Science Circle, Steger 352, Blackburg, Virginia 24061, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4415","reference":[{"key":"20","unstructured":"CR Smaga, MC Allender, FA Jim\u00e9nez,  \"Herpetol Rev.\"  52, \"Estimation of prevalence and qPCR copy-number of Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola and snake fungal disease in a snake community in southern Illinois, with notes on detection methods.\" 45 (2021)"},{"key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G Blanvillain, JM Lorch, N Joudrier, et al.  \"Commun Biol.\"  7, \"Contribution of host species and pathogen clade to snake fungal disease hotspots in Europe.\" 440 (2024)","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-024-06092-x"},{"key":"9","unstructured":"LD Fuchs, TA Tupper, R Aguilar, et al.  \"Amphib Reptile Conserv.\"  14, \"Detection of Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola at two mid-Atlantic natural areas in Anne Arundel County, Maryland and Fairfax County, Virginia, USA.\" e220 (2020)"},{"key":"10","unstructured":"RM Goodman  and ED Carter  \"Catesbeiana.\"  37, \"Survey of herpetofauna on the campus of Hampden-Sydney College in Prince Edward County, Virginia.\" 73 (2017)"},{"key":"11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Gramhofer, MC Allender, E Haynes, et al.  \"J Herpetol.\"  56, \"Prevalence of ophidiomycosis (snake fungal disease) at a high disturbance remediated landfill and at a low-impacted forest research site in east Tennessee, USA.\" 274 (2022)","DOI":"10.1670\/20-150"},{"key":"16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JR Patterson, MJ Bender, CE Duckworth, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  57, \"The occurrence of Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola in northern Georgia wild and captive snake populations.\" 643 (2021)","DOI":"10.7589\/JWD-D-20-00129"},{"key":"21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"NE Thompson, EW Lankau, GM Rogall,  \"Snake fungal disease in North America: U.S. Geological Survey updates. U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2017-3064.\"  4 (2018)","DOI":"10.3133\/fs20173064"},{"key":"17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"\"R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing.\"  (2025)","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-74686-7"},{"key":"4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MC Allender, MJ Ravesi, E Haynes, et al.  \"PLoS One.\"  15, \"Ophidiomycosis, an emerging fungal disease of snakes: Targeted surveillance on military lands and detection in the western US and Puerto Rico.\" e0240415 (2020)","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0240415"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MC Allender, ET Hileman, J Moore, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  52, \"Detection of Ophidiomyces, the causative agent of snake fungal disease, in the eastern massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus) in Michigan, USA, 2014.\" 694 (2016)","DOI":"10.7589\/2015-12-333"},{"key":"2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MC Allender, DB Raudabaugh, FH Gleason, et al.  \"Fungal Ecol.\"  17, \"The natural history, ecology, and epidemiology of Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola and its potential impact on free-ranging snake populations.\" 187 (2015)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.funeco.2015.05.003"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AL Guthrie, S Knowles, AE Ballmann, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  52, \"Detection of snake fungal disease due to Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola in Virginia, USA.\" 143 (2016)","DOI":"10.7589\/2015-04-093.1"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JL Cheatwood, ER Jacobson, PG May, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  39, \"An outbreak of fungal dermatitis and stomatitis in a free-ranging population of pigmy rattlesnakes (Sistrurus miliarius barbouri) in Florida.\" 329 (2003)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-39.2.329"},{"key":"18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M Rzadkowska, MC Allender, M O'Dell, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  52, \"Evaluation of common disinfectants effective against Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, the causative agent of snake fungal disease.\" 759 (2016)","DOI":"10.7589\/2016-01-012"},{"key":"12","unstructured":"M Grisnik, JE Leys, D Bryan, et al.  \"Herpetol Rev.\"  49, \"Host and geographic range of snake fungal disease in Tennessee, USA.\" 682 (2018)"},{"key":"5","unstructured":"SJ Baker, E Haynes, M Gramhofer, et al.  \"Herpetol Rev.\"  50, \"Case definition and diagnostic testing for snake fungal disease.\" 279 (2019)"},{"key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L Sigler, S Hambleton, JA Par\u00e9,  \"J Clin Microbiol.\"  51, \"Molecular characterization of reptile pathogens currently known as members of the Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii complex and relationship with some human-associated isolates.\" 3338 (2013)","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01465-13"},{"key":"14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"CM Lind, CM McCoy, TM Farrell,  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  54, \"Tracking outcomes of snake fungal disease in free-ranging pygmy rattlesnakes (Sistrurus miliarius).\" 352 (2018)","DOI":"10.7589\/2017-05-109"},{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"MC Allender, MJ Dreslik, S Wylie, et al.  \"Emerg Infect Dis.\"  17, \"Chrysosporium sp. infection in eastern massasauga rattlesnakes.\" 2383 (2011)","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1712.110240"},{"key":"7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"E Bohuski, JM Lorch, KM Griffin, et al.  \"BMC Vet Res.\"  11, \"Taq-Man real-time polymerase chain reaction for detection of Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, the fungus associated with snake fungal disease.\" 95 (2015)","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-015-0407-8"},{"key":"15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JM Lorch, SJ Price, JS Lankton, et al.  \"Emerg Infect Dis.\"  27, \"Confirmed Cases of ophidiomycosis in museum specimens from as early as 1945, United States.\" 1986 (2021)","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2707.204864"}],"container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T20:42:53Z","timestamp":1791232973000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-wildlife-diseases\/volume-62\/issue-3\/JWD-D-25-00156\/Surveillance-of-Ophidiomyces-ophidiicola-in-Snakes-Primarily-Eastern-Wormsnakes-Carphophis\/10.7589\/JWD-D-25-00156.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]},"references-count":21,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7589\/jwd-d-25-00156","relation":{},"ISSN":["0090-3558","1943-3700"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0090-3558","type":"print"},{"value":"1943-3700","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]}}}