{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T04:28:32Z","timestamp":1793766512326,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"Wildlife Disease Association","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The Vancouver Island marmot (VIM; Marmota vancouverensis) is a critically endangered sciurid endemic to the subalpine meadows of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. In response to population declines in the 1980s and 1990s, an intensive conservation breeding and reintroduction program was initiated in 1997. This recovery effort has generated significant health-related data from the captive, captive-release, and wild VIM populations, including results from 153 ex situ and 820 in situ mortalities. There were important differences in surveillance between captive and free-ranging populations (captive release and wild). Ex situ marmots exhibited greater longevity, were monitored with greater intensity, were carefully managed during hibernation, and were safeguarded against predation. These factors facilitated prompt recognition, recovery, and evaluation of mortalities. Cardiomyopathy and neoplasia represented the most significant causes of mortality in captives but were not observed in their in situ counterparts, possibly due to reduced longevity, dissimilar risk patterns, or limited opportunities to evaluate intact carcasses. Intact carcasses of free-ranging marmots were mainly recovered in spring and resulted from hibernation-related, postemergent emaciation. Mortalities of free-ranging VIMs often presented as incomplete remains or were inaccessible in burrows, meaning they were evaluated according to on-site field observations. Investigations indicated that the first wild hibernation was a time of substantial mortality for marmots released from captivity. However, captive releases that survived their first winter displayed a low incidence of hibernation mortality in subsequent winters, a success rate similar to that of their wild-born counterparts. Predators, particularly cougars (Puma concolor), represented the most consequential cause of mortality for both captive-release and wild marmots. No specific infectious agents were identified as presenting a generalized threat to in situ or ex situ populations. Chronic obesity in captives, reduced hibernation survival of first-year captive releases, and pronounced, seasonal predation of free-ranging marmots appear to represent important factors influencing the health and recovery of this critically endangered species.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7589\/jwd-d-26-00045","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T04:19:31Z","timestamp":1793765971000},"page":"942-952","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["CAUSES OF MORTALITY IN CAPTIVE, CAPTIVE-RELEASE, AND WILD VANCOUVER ISLAND MARMOTS (MARMOTA VANCOUVERENSIS)"],"prefix":"10.7589","volume":"62","author":[{"given":"Malcolm","family":"McAdie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Marmot Recovery Foundation, 5206 Burnham Crescent, Nanaimo, British Columbia V9T 2H9, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karl","family":"Larsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Natural Resource Sciences, Thompson Rivers University, 805 TRU Way, Kamloops, British Columbia V2C 0C8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stephen","family":"Raverty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Health Center, 1767 Angus Campbell Road, Abbotsford, British Columbia V3G 2M3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Douglas","family":"Whiteside","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Calgary Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, 3330 Hospital Drive Northwest, Calgary, Alberta T2N 4Z6, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Craig","family":"Stephen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"McEachran Institute, Nanoose Bay, British Columbia, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4415","reference":[{"key":"1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K Aaltonen, AA Bryant, JA Hostetler, et al.  \"Biol Conserv.\"  142, \"Reintroducing endangered Vancouver Island marmots: Survival and cause-specific mortality rates of captive-born versus wild-born individuals.\" 2181 (2009)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2009.04.019"},{"key":"2","unstructured":"K Alt  and M Eckert  \"Predation ID manual: Predator kill and scavenging characteristics.\"  120 (2017)"},{"key":"3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"KG Barrett, G Amaral, M Elphinstone, et al.  \"Conserv Genet.\"  23, \"Genetic management on the brink of extinction: Sequencing microsatellites does not improve estimates of inbreeding in wild and captive Vancouver Island marmots (Marmota vancouverensis).\" 417 (2022)","DOI":"10.1007\/s10592-022-01429-7"},{"key":"4","unstructured":"AA. Bryant,  \"Metapopulation ecology of Vancouver Island marmots (Marmota vancouverensis).\"  125 (1998)"},{"key":"5","unstructured":"AA Bryant  and M McAdie  \"Adaptive strategies and diversity in marmots.\"  \"Hibernation ecology of wild and captive Vancouver Island marmots (Marmota vancouverensis).\" 149 (2003)"},{"key":"6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AA Bryant  and RE Page  \"Can J Zool.\"  83, \"Timing and causes of mortality in the endangered Vancouver Island marmot (Marmota vancouverensis).\" 674 (2005)","DOI":"10.1139\/z05-055"},{"key":"7","unstructured":"AA Bryant, HM Schwantje, NI de With,  \"Holarctic marmots as a factor of biodiversity.\"  \"Disease and unsuccessful reintroduction of Vancouver Island marmots (Marmota vancouverensis).\" 101 (2002)"},{"key":"8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"P Concannon, P Roberts, B Baldwin, et al.  \"Biol Reprod.\"  57, \"Long-term entrainment of circannual reproductive and metabolic cycles by northern and southern hemisphere photoperiods in woodchucks (Marmota monax).\" 1008 (1997)","DOI":"10.1095\/biolreprod57.5.1008"},{"key":"10","unstructured":"NI de With, C Stephen, R Ribble, et al.  \"The potential role of Yersinia spp. in the decline of the Vancouver Island marmot (Marmota vancouverensis).\"  61 (1999)"},{"key":"11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"AJ German, VH Ryan, AC German, et al.  \"Vet J.\"  185, \"Obesity, its associated disorders and the role of inflammatory adipokines in companion animals.\" 4 (2010)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2010.04.004"},{"key":"12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SC Griffin, ML Taper, R Hoffman, et al.  \"Biol Conserv.\"  141, \"The case of the missing marmots: Are metapopulation dynamics or range-wide declines responsible?\" 1293 (2008)","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2008.03.001"},{"key":"14","unstructured":"\"Guidelines for reintroductions and other conservation translocations. Ver. 1.0.\"  57 (2013)"},{"key":"15","unstructured":"C Jackson, A Baker, D Doyle, et al.  \"Vancouver Island marmot population and habitat viability assessment workshop final report.\"  70 (2015)"},{"key":"16","unstructured":"CL. Jackson,  \"First year site fidelity and survival in reintroduced captive-bred Vancouver Island marmots (Marmota vancouverensis).\"  72 (2005)"},{"key":"17","unstructured":"DW Janz, AA Bryant, NK Dawe, et al.  \"National recovery plan for the Vancouver Island marmot (2000 update). Recovery of Nationally Endangered Wildlife. Report No. 19.\"  38 (2000)"},{"key":"18","unstructured":"\"Annual Report 2025.\"  57 (2025)"},{"key":"19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B Ranheim, F Rosell, HA Haga, et al.  \"Wildl Biol.\"  10, \"Field anaesthetic and surgical techniques for implantation of intraperitoneal radio transmitters in Eurasian beavers Castor fiber.\" 11 (2004)","DOI":"10.2981\/wlb.2004.004"},{"key":"20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L Roth  and JM King  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  22, \"Congestive cardiomyopathy in the woodchuck, Marmota monax.\" 533 (1986)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-22.4.533"},{"key":"21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"JL Rothenburger, CG Himsworth, PM Treuting, et al.  \"Vet Pathol.\"  52, \"Survey of cardiovascular pathology in wild urban Rattus norvegicus and Rattus rattus.\" 201 (2015)","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985814528220"},{"key":"22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C Soto-Azat, F Boher, M Fabry, et al.  \"J Wildl Dis.\"  44, \"Surgical implantation of intra-abdominal radiotransmitters in marine otters (Lontra felina) in central Chile.\" 979 (2008)","DOI":"10.7589\/0090-3558-44.4.979"},{"key":"23","unstructured":"HS. Swarth,  \"Univ Calif Publ Zool.\"  7, \"Two new species of marmots from northwestern America.\" 201 (1911)"},{"key":"24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"HS. Swarth,  \"Univ Calif Publ Zool.\"  10, \"Report on a collection of birds and mammals from Vancouver Island.\" 1 (1912)","DOI":"10.5962\/bhl.title.121567"},{"key":"25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D. Van Vuren,  \"J Wildl Manag.\"  53, \"Effects of intraperitoneal transmitter implants on yellow-bellied marmots.\" 320 (1989)","DOI":"10.2307\/3801130"},{"key":"26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"C Wong  and TH Marwick  \"Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med.\"  4, \"Obesity cardiomyopathy: Pathogenesis and pathophysiology.\" 436 (2007)","DOI":"10.1038\/ncpcardio0943"},{"key":"9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"SL Deem, PG Parker, RE Miller,  \"Biotropica.\"  40, \"Building bridges: Connecting the health and conservation professions.\" 662 (2008)","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-7429.2008.00436.x"},{"key":"13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"BL. Hart,  \"Neurosci Biobehav Rev.\"  12, \"Biological basis of the behavior of sick animals.\" 123 (1988)","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(88)80004-6"}],"container-title":["Journal of Wildlife Diseases"],"original-title":[],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T04:19:34Z","timestamp":1793765974000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/bioone.org\/journals\/journal-of-wildlife-diseases\/volume-62\/issue-4\/JWD-D-26-00045\/CAUSES-OF-MORTALITY-IN-CAPTIVE-CAPTIVE-RELEASE-AND-WILD-VANCOUVER\/10.7589\/JWD-D-26-00045.full"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7589\/jwd-d-26-00045","relation":{},"ISSN":["0090-3558","1943-3700"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0090-3558","type":"print"},{"value":"1943-3700","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]]}}}