{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T10:59:00Z","timestamp":1774004340419,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773964800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting","award":["PNURSP2026R442"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PNURSP2026R442"]}]},{"name":"Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ensuring secure and energy-efficient data collection remains a critical challenge in wireless sensor networks (WSNs), where resource-constrained sensor nodes operate in vulnerable and dynamic environments. This article proposes S-EMSDC, a novel two-layer secure and energy-aware cluster-based data collection framework employing a mobile sink. The first layer integrates an Improved Discretized INFO (IDINFO) mobility optimization algorithm to minimize transmission distance and balance energy consumption through optimized sink trajectory planning, adaptive clustering, and dynamic cluster-head (CH) rotation. The second layer eliminates explicit key exchange and strengthens security by combining AES-256\u2013based node authentication with HMAC-SHA256 integrity verification, ensuring early rejection of forged or manipulated data before aggregation. Extensive simulations on networks ranging from 100 to 500 nodes demonstrate the superiority of Secure and Energy-Efficient data collection framework for WSNs employing a Mobile Sink (S-EMSDC) over recent state-of-the-art schemes, including Energy-Efficient Mobile Sink-Based Intelligent Data Routing (EEMSR), Genetic algorithm based sink mobility for energy efficient data routing (GA-SMT), Balanced Inter-cluster and Inner-cluster Energy (BIIE), Group Teaching Algorithm by using the Bald Eagle (GTA-BE), and energy-aware path construction (EAPC). Results show that S-EMSDC extends network lifetime by up to 74%, reduces average energy consumption by over 60% compared to baseline methods and by 20\u201340% relative to recent protocols such as EA-PC and GA-SMT, depending on the number of rounds. The framework also achieves near-zero successful identity forgery across varying node densities and identifier lengths, confirming its robustness against identity-based attacks. Overall, S-EMSDC provides a secure, scalable, and energy-efficient solution suitable for mission-critical WSN applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T08:45:27Z","timestamp":1773996327000},"page":"e3731","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A secure and energy-efficient cluster-based data collection scheme using mobile sink in wireless sensor networks"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0612-6523","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Sarah","family":"M. Alhammad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Sciences, College of Computer and Information Sciences, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"}]},{"given":"Hassan","family":"Al-Mahdi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Computer and Informatics, Suez Canal University, Ismallia, Egypt"}]},{"given":"M.","family":"Elshrkawey","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Information System, Faculty of Computer and Informatics, Suez Canal University, Ismallia, Egypt"}]},{"given":"Shymaa","family":"Saad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Computer and Informatics, El Arish University, Arish, Egypt"}]},{"given":"Safa","family":"Abdelaziz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Computer and Informatics, Suez Canal University, Ismallia, Egypt"}]}],"member":"4443","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]]},"reference":[{"issue":"10","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9881","DOI":"10.1109\/jsen.2022.3164944","article-title":"Energy-efficient mobile sink-based intelligent data routing scheme for wireless sensor networks","volume":"22","author":"Agarwal","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors Journal"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7384537","DOI":"10.1155\/2024\/7384537","article-title":"An intelligent energy-efficient data routing scheme for wireless sensor networks utilizing mobile sink","volume":"2024","author":"Al-Mahdi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1089","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-019-06903-z","article-title":"WSN strategies based on sensors, deployment, sensing models, coverage and energy efficiency: review, approaches and open issues","volume":"111","author":"Amutha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Wireless Personal Communications"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"117334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2022.117334","article-title":"An energy efficient cluster based hybrid optimization algorithm with static sink and mobile sink node for wireless sensor networks","volume":"203","author":"Amutha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Expert Systems with Applications"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106802","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asoc.2020.106802","article-title":"Tour planning for multiple mobile sinks in wireless sensor networks: a shark smell optimization approach","volume":"97","author":"Anwit","year":"2020","journal-title":"Applied Soft Computing"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"110092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2025.110092","article-title":"An energy-aware link fault detection and recovery scheme for QOS enhancement in internet of things-enabled wireless sensor network","volume":"123","author":"Aruchamy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Computers & Electrical Engineering"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1201\/9781003459040-6","article-title":"A future cyber security for secured smart home applications using the internet of things and blockchain technology","volume-title":"Multimedia Security: Tools, Techniques, and Applications","author":"Arulkumar","year":"2025","edition":"1"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-26450-9_24","article-title":"A review of the use of computational intelligence in the design of military surveillance networks","volume-title":"Recent Advances in Computational Intelligence in Defense and Security","author":"Ball","year":"2016"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.23940\/ijpe.24.02.p3.8190","article-title":"Fuzzy logic-based cluster head selection method for enhancing wireless sensor network lifetime","volume":"20","author":"Batra","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Journal of Performability Engineering"},{"issue":"20","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8534","DOI":"10.3390\/s23208534","article-title":"Multiple mobile sinks for quality of service improvement in large-scale wireless sensor networks","volume":"23","author":"Ben Yagouta","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-22277-2_27","article-title":"Requirements, protocols, and security challenges in wireless sensor networks: an industrial perspective","volume-title":"Handbook of Computer Networks and Cyber Security, Principles and Paradigms","author":"Bhushan","year":"2020"},{"issue":"14","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8173","DOI":"10.1109\/jsen.2020.2981692","article-title":"Multirate data collection using mobile sink in wireless sensor networks","volume":"20","author":"Chang","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors Journal"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1288","DOI":"10.1109\/lwc.2022.3164784","article-title":"UAV-assisted data collection for dynamic and heterogeneous wireless sensor networks","volume":"11","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Wireless Communications Letters"},{"issue":"20","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4391","DOI":"10.3390\/s19204391","article-title":"A new centralized clustering algorithm for wireless sensor networks","volume":"19","author":"Cuevas-Martinez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1022","DOI":"10.1007\/s12083-017-0581-5","article-title":"Data aggregation with end-to-end confidentiality and integrity for large-scale wireless sensor networks","volume":"11","author":"Cui","year":"2018","journal-title":"Peer-to-Peer Networking and Applications"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-16","first-page":"154","article-title":"Implementation of HMAC-SHA256 algorithm for hybrid routing protocols in MANETs","author":"Dilli","year":"2015"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1007\/s10207-023-00737-4","article-title":"Energy-efficient trust-aware secured neuro-fuzzy clustering with sparrow search optimization in wireless sensor network","volume":"23","author":"Dinesh","year":"2024a","journal-title":"International Journal of Information Security"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1007\/s12083-023-01603-9","article-title":"GWO-SMSLO: grey wolf optimization-based clustering with secured modified sea lion optimization routing algorithm in wireless sensor networks","volume":"17","author":"Dinesh","year":"2024b","journal-title":"Peer-to-Peer Networking and Applications"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1705","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.1705","article-title":"Blockchain technology and application: an overview","volume":"9","author":"Dong","year":"2023","journal-title":"PeerJ Computer Science"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2649","DOI":"10.15837\/ijccc.2021.2.3935","article-title":"An efficient secure scheme for data aggregation in wireless sensor networks using the additive property of complex numbers","volume":"96","author":"Elsherif","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Theoretical and Applied Information Technology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15837\/ijccc.2021.2.3935","article-title":"SDA-SM: an efficient secure data aggregation scheme using separate mac across wireless sensor networks","volume":"16","author":"Elshrkawey","year":"2021","journal-title":"International Journal of Computers Communicatons and Control"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksuci.2017.04.002","article-title":"An enhancement approach for reducing the energy consumption in wireless sensor networks","volume":"30","author":"Elshrkawey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of King Saud University-Computer and Information Sciences"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-23","first-page":"248","article-title":"Aggregate over multi-hop homomorphic encrypted data in wireless sensor networks","author":"Engouang","year":"2013"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153504","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aeue.2020.153504","article-title":"Energy-balanced data collection with path-constrained mobile sink in wireless sensor networks","volume":"127","author":"Fu","year":"2020","journal-title":"AEU-International Journal of Electronics and Communications"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-25","first-page":"227","volume-title":"ANOVA: analysis of variance","author":"Gasperoni","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.protcy.2012.05.024","article-title":"Clustering in wireless sensor networks: performance comparison of LEACH and LEACH-C protocols using NS2","volume":"4","author":"Geetha","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Technology"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2961","DOI":"10.1007\/s11276-021-02630-1","article-title":"Rendezvous points based energy-aware routing using hybrid neural network for mobile sink in wireless sensor networks","volume":"27","author":"Gowda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Wireless Networks"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5283","DOI":"10.1007\/s12652-020-01909-z","article-title":"Load balanced clustering scheme using hybrid metaheuristic technique for mobile sink based wireless sensor networks","volume":"13","author":"Gupta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1109\/twc.2002.804190","article-title":"An application-specific protocol architecture for wireless microsensor networks","volume":"1","author":"Heinzelman","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aeue.2017.03.012","article-title":"An energy efficient approach for data collection in wireless sensor networks using public transportation vehicles","volume":"75","author":"Huang","year":"2017","journal-title":"AEU-International Journal of Electronics and Communications"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103633","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2023.103633","article-title":"Blockchain for healthcare systems: architecture, security challenges, trends and future directions","volume":"215","author":"J","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Network and Computer Applications"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1108\/sr-03-2021-0094","article-title":"Improving the performance of hierarchical wireless sensor networks using the metaheuristic algorithms: efficient cluster head selection","volume":"41","author":"Kiani","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sensor Review"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-33","first-page":"763","article-title":"Design of smart system for mitigating wild animal intrusion in agricultural farms using IoT and deep learning","author":"Kundu","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-34","first-page":"475","article-title":"Aggregate MAC based authentication for secure data aggregation in wireless sensor networks","author":"Parmar","year":"2014"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2006.02.017","article-title":"Design of a distributed energy-efficient clustering algorithm for heterogeneous wireless sensor networks","volume":"29","author":"Qing","year":"2006","journal-title":"Computer Communications"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1080\/1206212x.2017.1398214","article-title":"Practical overview of security issues in wireless sensor network applications","volume":"40","author":"Radhappa","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of Computers and Applications"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1049\/ntw2.12009","article-title":"SYNGuard: dynamic threshold-based SYN flood attack detection and mitigation in software-defined networks","volume":"10","author":"Rahouti","year":"2021","journal-title":"IET Networks"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1007\/s12083-025-01957-2","article-title":"Rl-BOT\u2014reinforcement learning based billfish optimization technique for secured data aggregation in the internet of things","volume":"18","author":"Rajan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Peer-to-Peer Networking and Applications"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1287\/ijoc.3.4.376","article-title":"TSPLIB\u2014a traveling salesman problem library","volume":"3","author":"Reinelt","year":"1991","journal-title":"ORSA Journal on Computing"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIDeA64800.2025.10963018","article-title":"A comprehensive study of the advanced encryption standard (AES) for secure communications","author":"Revathy","year":"2025"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19724","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-025-03558-8","article-title":"Energy-efficient trust-aware secure routing algorithm with attribute-based encryption for wireless sensor networks","volume":"15","author":"Selvi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1830","DOI":"10.1007\/s12083-024-01670-6","article-title":"An energy-efficient swan intelligent-based clustering technique (SICT) with fuzzy-based secure routing protocol in IoT","volume":"17","author":"Shanmugapriya","year":"2024","journal-title":"Peer-to-Peer Networking and Applications"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2128","DOI":"10.1109\/tpds.2014.2346764","article-title":"A secure data aggregation scheme based on appropriate cryptographic primitives in heterogeneous wireless sensor networks","volume":"26","author":"Shim","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153605","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aeue.2021.153605","article-title":"Genetic algorithm based sink mobility for energy efficient data routing in wireless sensor networks","volume":"131","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"AEU-International Journal of Electronics and Communications"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s10922-025-09916-1","article-title":"Integrating real-time wireless sensor networks into IoT using MQTT-SN","volume":"33","author":"Stangaciu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Network and Systems Management"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi14030111","article-title":"Solving the traveling salesman problem using the IDINFO algorithm","volume":"14","author":"Su","year":"2025","journal-title":"ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s13638-025-02449-w","article-title":"Improving energy efficiency and routing reliability in wireless sensor networks using modified ant colony optimization","volume":"2025","author":"Tawfeek","year":"2025","journal-title":"EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1109\/jsen.2017.2773119","article-title":"EAPC: energy-aware path construction for data collection using mobile sink in wireless sensor networks","volume":"18","author":"Wen","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sensors Journal"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2014.11.014","article-title":"Maximizing precision for energy-efficient data aggregation in wireless sensor networks with lossy links","volume":"26","author":"Xiao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Networks"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1109\/jiot.2017.2726014","article-title":"A survey of clustering techniques in WSNs and consideration of the challenges of applying such to 5G IoT scenarios","volume":"4","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Internet of Things Journal"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1109\/BigDataCongress.2017.85","article-title":"An overview of blockchain technology: architecture, consensus, and future trends","volume-title":"IEEE International Congress on Big Data (BigData Congress)","author":"Zheng","year":"2017"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"102912","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2022.102912","article-title":"FAIFO: UAV-assisted IoT programmable packet scheduling considering freshness","volume":"134","author":"Zhu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Networks"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpdc.2017.06.019","article-title":"An efficient and secure recoverable data aggregation scheme for heterogeneous wireless sensor networks","volume":"111","author":"Zhong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-54","first-page":"291","article-title":"An efficient privacy and integrity preserving data aggregation scheme for multiple applications in wireless sensor networks","author":"Zhou","year":"2019"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731\/ref-55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"256852","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/256852","article-title":"An efficient data aggregation protocol concentrated on data integrity in wireless sensor networks","volume":"9","author":"Zhu","year":"2013","journal-title":"International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks"}],"container-title":["PeerJ Computer Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/cs-3731.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/cs-3731.xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/cs-3731.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/cs-3731.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T08:45:30Z","timestamp":1773996330000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/cs-3731"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]]},"references-count":55,"alternative-id":["10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717\/peerj-cs.3731","archive":["CLOCKSS","LOCKSS","Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["2376-5992"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2376-5992","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]]},"article-number":"e3731"}}