{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]],"date-time":"2026-06-22T14:48:34Z","timestamp":1782139714556,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,21]],"date-time":"2024-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1716249600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>In recent years, due to the prevalence of virtual reality (VR) and human-computer interaction (HCI) research, along with the expectation that understanding the process of establishing sense of ownership, sense of agency, and limb heaviness (in this study, limb heaviness is replaced with comfort level) will contribute to the development of various medical rehabilitation, various studies have been actively conducted in these fields. Previous studies have indicated that each perceptual characteristics decrease in response to positive delay. However, it is still unclear how each perceptual characteristic changes in response to negative delay. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to deduce how changes occur in the perceptual characteristics when certain settings are manipulated using the avatar developed in this study. This study conducted experiments using an avatar system developed for this research that uses electromyography as the interface. Two separate experiments involved twelve participants: a preliminary experiment and a main experiment. As observed in the previous study, it was confirmed that each perceptual characteristics decreased for positive delay. In addition, the range of the preliminary experiment was insufficient for the purpose of this study, which was to confirm the perceptual characteristics for negative delay, thus confirming the validity of conducting this experiment. Meanwhile, the main experiment showed that the sense of ownership, sense of agency, and comfort level decreased gradually as delay time decreased, (<jats:italic>i.e.<\/jats:italic>, this event is prior to action with intention, which could not be examined in the previous study). This suggests that control by the brain-machine interface is difficult to use when it is too fast. In addition, the distribution of the most strongly perceived settings in human perceptual characteristics was wider in regions with larger delays, suggesting this may lead to the evaluation of an internal model believed to exist in the human cerebellum. The avatar developed for this study may have the potential to create a new experimental paradigm for perceptual characteristics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,21]],"date-time":"2024-05-21T08:14:41Z","timestamp":1716279281000},"page":"e2042","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Pilot study of the relation between various dynamics of avatar experience and perceptual characteristics"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Yuto","family":"Okamoto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kazuhiro","family":"Matsui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tetsuya","family":"Ando","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Keita","family":"Atsuumi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan"},{"name":"Graduate School of Information Sciences, Hiroshima City University, Hiroshima, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kazuhiro","family":"Taniguchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan"},{"name":"Faculty of Human Ecology, Yasuda Women\u2019s University, Hiroshima, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hiroaki","family":"Hirai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Atsushi","family":"Nishikawa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4443","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Visual EMG biofeedback system in a virtual reality space for relearning internal models: case studies focusing on equilibrium point velocity","author":"Ando","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"786200","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2022.786200","article-title":"Real-time detection and feedback of canonical electroencephalogram microstates: validating a neurofeedback system as a function of delay","volume":"16","author":"Asai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-3","first-page":"1879","article-title":"The cerebellum is involved in predicting the sensory consequences of action","volume":"12","author":"Blakemore","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuro Report"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-4","first-page":"19","article-title":"Influence of control\/display ratio on the perception of mass of manipulated objects in virtual environments","author":"Dominjon","year":"2005"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2013.09.010","article-title":"The time windows of the sense of agency","volume":"22","author":"Farrer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Consciousness and Cognition"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-6","volume-title":"How to design and report experiments","author":"Field","year":"2003"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1038\/76701","article-title":"Independence of perceptual and sensorimotor predictions in the size-weight illusion","volume":"3","author":"Flanagan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-8","article-title":"Modeling and stiffness control of elbow joint movement using functional electrical stimulation","author":"Gong","year":"2020"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"934","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2497","article-title":"Human volition: towards a neuroscience of will","volume":"9","author":"Haggard","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2012.02.040","article-title":"Sense of agency","volume":"22","author":"Haggard","year":"2012","journal-title":"Current Biology"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.20965\/jaciii.2011.p0980","article-title":"Decomposition of limb movement based on muscular coordination during human running","volume":"15","author":"Iimura","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence and Intelligent Informatics"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-12","first-page":"41","article-title":"Perceiving mass in mixed reality through pseudo-haptic rendering of Newton\u2019s third law","author":"Issartel","year":"2015"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.2490\/jjrmc.53.234","article-title":"Own-body kinesthetic illusion in the augmented reality","volume":"53","author":"Kaneko","year":"2016","journal-title":"The Japanese Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2007.07.028","article-title":"Kinesthetic illusory feeling induced by a finger movement movie effects on corticomotor excitability","volume":"149","author":"Kaneko","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2018.00001","article-title":"Neural mechanism of altered limb perceptions caused by temporal sensorimotor incongruence","volume":"12","author":"Katayama","year":"2018","journal-title":"Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1162\/pres.18.1.39","article-title":"Simulating haptic feedback using vision: a survey of research and applications of pseudo-haptic feedback","volume":"18","author":"L\u00e9cuyer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2014.00164","article-title":"Equilibrium-point control of human elbow-joint movement under isometric environment by using multichannel functional electrical stimulation","volume":"8","author":"Matsui","year":"2014","journal-title":"Frontiers in Neuroscience"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.11239\/jsmbe.53.14","article-title":"Analysis of equilibrium-point control model using two-channel functional electrical stimulation to extend elbow joint movement to an unconstrained environment on the horizontal plane","volume":"53","author":"Matsui","year":"2015","journal-title":"Transactions of Japanese Society for Medical and Biological Engineering"},{"issue":"19","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7412","DOI":"10.3390\/s22197412","article-title":"Earable \u03a9 (OMEGA): a novel clenching interface using ear canal sensing for human metacarpophalangeal joint control by functional electrical stimulation","volume":"22","author":"Matsui","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-79910-x","article-title":"Awareness of voluntary action, rather than body ownership, improves motor control","volume":"11","author":"Matsumiya","year":"2021","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1016\/S0893-6080(96)00035-4","article-title":"Forward models for physiological motor control","volume":"9","author":"Miall","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neural Networks"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.3390\/bs13020132","article-title":"Adaptability of the sense of agency in healthy young adults in sensorimotor tasks for a short term","volume":"13","author":"Mishima","year":"2023","journal-title":"Behavioral Sciences"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-23","article-title":"Modeling of metacarpophalangeal joint movement using functional electrical stimulation by controlling the equilibrium-point","author":"Nagai","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.humov.2017.09.003","article-title":"Sensorimotor incongruence alters limb perception and movement","volume":"57","author":"Osumi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Human Movement Science"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0219222","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0219222","article-title":"The relationship and difference between delay detection ability and judgment of sense of agency","volume":"14","author":"Osumi","year":"2019","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-26","first-page":"1","article-title":"Pseudo-haptic weight: changing the perceived weight of virtual objects by manipulating control-display ratio","author":"Samad","year":"2019"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00174.2010","article-title":"Delayed visual feedback affects both manual tracking and grip force control when transporting a handheld object","volume":"104","author":"Sarlegna","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Neurophysiology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-009-2028-6","article-title":"Detection of visual feedback delay in active and passive self-body movements","volume":"201","author":"Shimada","year":"2010","journal-title":"Experimental Brain Research"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-29","first-page":"59","article-title":"An introduction to the statistical free software HAD: suggestions to improve teaching, learning and practice data analysis","volume":"1","author":"Shimizu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Media, Information and Communication"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-30","article-title":"MIC, The radio use web site","author":"Telecommunications Bureau of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications of Japan","year":"2005"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1109\/TOH.2021.3077619","article-title":"Survey of pseudo-haptics: haptic feedback design and application proposals","volume":"14","author":"Ujitoko","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Haptics"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelekin.2009.03.010","article-title":"MVC techniques to normalize trunk muscle EMG in healthy women","volume":"20","author":"Vera-Garcia","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2016.00329","article-title":"Goal-directed movement enhances body representation updating","volume":"10","author":"Wen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2015.06.004","article-title":"The influence of action-outcome delay and arousal on sense of agency and the intentional binding effect","volume":"36","author":"Wen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Consciousness and Cognition"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0125226","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0125226","article-title":"The sense of agency during continuous action: performance is more important than action-feedback association","volume":"10","author":"Wen","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"issue":"5232","key":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042\/ref-36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1880","DOI":"10.1126\/science.7569931","article-title":"An internal model for sensorimotor integration","volume":"269","author":"Wolpert","year":"1995","journal-title":"Science"}],"container-title":["PeerJ Computer Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/cs-2042.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/cs-2042.xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/cs-2042.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/cs-2042.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,21]],"date-time":"2024-05-21T08:14:53Z","timestamp":1716279293000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/cs-2042"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,21]]},"references-count":36,"alternative-id":["10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717\/peerj-cs.2042","archive":["CLOCKSS","LOCKSS","Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["2376-5992"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2376-5992","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,21]]},"article-number":"e2042"}}