{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,14]],"date-time":"2026-07-14T15:54:44Z","timestamp":1784044484484,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,30]],"date-time":"2025-05-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1748563200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Anhui Provincial Major Science and Technology Project","award":["202103a07020004, 202303a07020006-4, and 202304a05020071"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202103a07020004, 202303a07020006-4, and 202304a05020071"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2021YFF0306402"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFF0306402"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Research Project of Anhui Province Higher Education Institutions","award":["KJ2020ZD40"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KJ2020ZD40"]}]},{"name":"Anhui Provincial Clinical Medical Research Transformation Project","award":["202204295107020004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202204295107020004"]}]},{"name":"Anhui Province Traditional Chinese Medicine Science and Technology Research Special Project","award":["202303a07020006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["202303a07020006"]}]},{"name":"Research Funds of Center for Xin\u2019an Medicine and Modernization of Traditional Chinese Medicine of IHM","award":["2023CXMMTCM012"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023CXMMTCM012"]}]},{"name":"University Synergy Innovation Program of Anhui Province","award":["GXXT-2023- 076"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GXXT-2023- 076"]}]},{"name":"Anhui Provincial Education Department Project","award":["2022lhpysfjd063"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022lhpysfjd063"]}]},{"name":"Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Advanced Numerical Control & Servo Technology","award":["XJSK202103"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["XJSK202103"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>Biomechanical analysis of the human lower limbs plays a critical role in movement assessment, injury prevention, and rehabilitation guidance. Traditional gait analysis techniques, such as optical motion capture systems and biomechanical force platforms, are limited by high costs, operational complexity, and restricted applicability. In view of this, this study proposes a cost-effective and user-friendly approach that integrates inertial measurement units (IMUs) with a novel deep learning framework for real-time lower limb joint torque estimation. The proposed method combines time-frequency domain analysis through continuous wavelet transform (CWT) with a hybrid architecture comprising multi-head self-attention (MHSA), bidirectional long short-term memory (Bi-LSTM), and a one-dimensional convolutional residual network (1D Conv ResNet). This integration enhances feature extraction, noise suppression, and temporal dependency modeling, particularly for non-stationary and nonlinear signals in dynamic environments. Experimental validation on public datasets demonstrates high accuracy, with a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.16 N\u00b7m\/kg, Coefficient of Determination (<jats:italic>R<\/jats:italic><jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>) of 0.91, and Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.95. Furthermore, the framework outperforms existing models in computational efficiency and real-time applicability, achieving a single-cycle inference time of 152.6 ms, suitable for portable biomechanical monitoring systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.2888","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,30]],"date-time":"2025-05-30T08:20:32Z","timestamp":1748593232000},"page":"e2888","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Estimation of lower limb torque: a novel hybrid method based on continuous wavelet transform and deep learning approach"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Shu","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Science Island Branch, Graduate School of USTC, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, China"},{"name":"Institute of Intelligent Machines, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, Anhui, 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