{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T08:39:36Z","timestamp":1772267976001,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,22]],"date-time":"2020-12-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1608595200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"School of Engineering at the University of Liverpool"},{"name":"Wellcome Trust Institutional Strategic Support Fund","award":["WT 204822\/Z\/16\/Z (Eithne Comerford)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WT 204822\/Z\/16\/Z (Eithne Comerford)"]}]},{"name":"National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre based at Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust"},{"name":"UCL Institute of Ophthalmology"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ligaments including the cruciate ligaments support and transfer loads between bones applied to the knee joint organ. The functions of these ligaments can get compromised due to changes to their viscoelastic material properties. Currently there are discrepancies in the literature on the viscoelastic characteristics of knee ligaments which are thought to be due to tissue variability and different testing protocols.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>The aim of this study was to characterise the viscoelastic properties of healthy cranial cruciate ligaments (CCLs), from the canine knee (stifle) joint, with a focus on the toe region of the stress-strain properties where any alterations in the extracellular matrix which would affect viscoelastic properties would be seen. Six paired CCLs, from skeletally mature and disease-free Staffordshire bull terrier stifle joints were retrieved as a femur-CCL-tibia complex and mechanically tested under uniaxial cyclic loading up to 10 N at three strain rates, namely 0.1%, 1% and 10%\/min, to assess the viscoelastic property of strain rate dependency. The effect of strain history was also investigated by subjecting contralateral CCLs to an ascending (0.1%, 1% and 10%\/min) or descending (10%, 1% and 0.1%\/min) strain rate protocol. The differences between strain rates were not statistically significant. However, hysteresis and recovery of ligament lengths showed some dependency on strain rate. Only hysteresis was affected by the test protocol and lower strain rates resulted in higher hysteresis and lower recovery. These findings could be explained by the slow process of uncrimping of collagen fibres and the contribution of proteoglycans in the ligament extracellular matrix to intra-fibrillar gliding, which results in more tissue elongations and higher energy dissipation. This study further expands our understanding of canine CCL behaviour, providing data for material models of femur-CCL-tibia complexes, and demonstrating the challenges for engineering complex biomaterials such as knee joint ligaments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.10635","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,22]],"date-time":"2020-12-22T03:10:50Z","timestamp":1608606650000},"page":"e10635","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Viscoelastic characteristics of the canine cranial cruciate ligament complex at slow strain rates"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"8","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4887-9635","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Rosti","family":"Readioff","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Brendan","family":"Geraghty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ahmed","family":"Elsheikh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK"},{"name":"Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China"},{"name":"UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, NIHR Moorfields BRC, London, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5244-6042","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Eithne","family":"Comerford","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK"},{"name":"School of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Neston, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"4443","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.10635\/ref-1","first-page":"3","article-title":"Biomechancis of ligaments","volume-title":"Ligament Injuries and their Treatment","author":"Amis","year":"1985"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.10635\/ref-2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4471-3774-0_48","article-title":"The biomechanics of ligaments","volume-title":"Biomechanics and Biomaterials in Orthopedics","author":"Amis","year":"2004"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.10635\/ref-3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1097\/00003086-198301000-00006","article-title":"Anatomy of the anterior cruciate ligament","volume":"172","author":"Arnoczky","year":"1983","journal-title":"Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.10635\/ref-4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-5827.1988.tb02267.x","article-title":"The cruciate ligaments: the enigma of the canine stifle","volume":"29","author":"Arnoczky","year":"1988","journal-title":"Journal of Small Animal Practice"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.10635\/ref-5","first-page":"1807","article-title":"The cruciate ligaments of the canine stifle: An anatomical and functional analysis","volume":"38","author":"Arnoczky","year":"1977","journal-title":"American Journal of Veterinary Research"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.7717\/peerj.10635\/ref-6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-5827.1988.tb02286.x","article-title":"A reappraisal of anterior cruciate ligament disease in the dog","volume":"29","author":"Bennett","year":"1988","journal-title":"Journal of Small Animal Practice"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.10635\/ref-7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.orthres.2004.06.002","article-title":"Viscoelastic properties of the human medial collateral ligament under longitudinal, transverse and shear loading","volume":"23","author":"Bonifasi-Lista","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Orthopaedic Research"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.10635\/ref-8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmbbm.2014.07.004","article-title":"Strain-rate sensitivity of the lateral collateral ligament of the knee","volume":"41","author":"Bonner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.7717\/peerj.10635\/ref-9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2006.12.001","article-title":"Stress-controlled viscoelastic tensile response of bovine cornea","volume":"40","author":"Boyce","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Biomechanics"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.7717\/peerj.10635\/ref-10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1097\/00002281-200209000-00017","article-title":"Impact of osteoarthritis on individuals and society: how much disability? 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