{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T08:43:41Z","timestamp":1772268221631,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,2]],"date-time":"2021-08-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1627862400000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Mushrooms have been consumed by humans for thousands of years, and while some have gastronomic and nutritional value, it has long been recognized that only select species of mushrooms are suitable for consumption. Adverse health effects of consuming poisonous mushrooms range from mild illness to death. Many valuable edible mushrooms are either impractical or unable to be grown commercially, requiring them to be harvested from the wild. In the U.S., products containing these wild-collected mushrooms are often sold with the nonspecific and undefined label \u201cwild mushrooms,\u201d although in some cases particular species are listed in the ingredients. However, the ambiguity of the definition of \u201cwild mushrooms\u201d in foods makes it impossible to know which species are involved or whether they are truly wild-collected or cultivated varieties. As a consequence, any individual adverse reactions to consuming the mushrooms in these products cannot be traced to the source due to the minimal regulations around the harvest and sale of wild mushrooms. For this study, we set out to shed light on what species of fungi are being sold as \u201cwild mushrooms\u201d using DNA metabarcoding to identify fungal contents of various food products acquired from locally sourced grocers and a large online retail site. Twenty-eight species of mushroom were identified across 16 food products, ranging from commonly cultivated species to wild species not represented in global DNA databases. Our results demonstrate that \u201cwild mushroom\u201d ingredients often consist entirely or in part of cultivated species such as the ubiquitous white and brown \u201cbutton\u201d mushrooms and portabella (\n                    <jats:italic>Agaricus bisporus<\/jats:italic>\n                    ), oyster\n                    <jats:italic>(Pleurotus<\/jats:italic>\n                    spp.) and shiitake (\n                    <jats:italic>Lentinula edodes<\/jats:italic>\n                    ). In other cases truly wild mushrooms were detected but they were not always consistent with the species on the label. More alarmingly, a few products with large distribution potential contained species whose edibility is at best dubious, and at worst potentially toxic.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.11747","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,2]],"date-time":"2021-08-02T03:13:03Z","timestamp":1627873983000},"page":"e11747","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["What\u2019s for dinner this time?: DNA authentication of \u201cwild mushrooms\u201d in food products sold in the USA"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"W. Dalley","family":"Cutler II","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6261-621X","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Alexander J.","family":"Bradshaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bryn T.M.","family":"Dentinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"4443","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,2]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.11747\/ref-1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8137.2009.03160.x","article-title":"The unite database for molecular identification of fungi-recent updates and future perspectives","volume":"186","author":"Abarenkov","year":"2010","journal-title":"New Phytologist"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.11747\/ref-2","article-title":"Unite general fasta release for fungi","author":"Abarenkov","year":"2021"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.7717\/peerj.11747\/ref-3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12073","article-title":"Improved software detection and extraction of ITS1 and ITS2 from ribosomal its sequences of fungi and other eukaryotes for analysis of environmental sequencing data","volume":"4","author":"Bengtsson-Palme","year":"2013","journal-title":"Methods in Ecology and Evolution"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.11747\/ref-4","article-title":"Amazon has ceded control of its site. the result: thousands of banned, unsafe or mislabeled products","author":"Berzon","year":"2019"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.11747\/ref-5","volume-title":"Wild edible fungi: a global overview of their use and importance to people","volume":"17","author":"Boa","year":"2004"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.11747\/ref-6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41538-017-0007-z","article-title":"Four years post-horsegate: an update of measures and actions put in place following the horsemeat incident of 2013","volume":"1","author":"Brooks","year":"2017","journal-title":"NPJ Science of Food"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.7717\/peerj.11747\/ref-7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2639","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2017.119","article-title":"Exact sequence variants should replace operational taxonomic units in marker-gene data analysis","volume":"11","author":"Callahan","year":"2017","journal-title":"The ISME Journal"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.7717\/peerj.11747\/ref-8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.3869","article-title":"DADA2: high-resolution sample inference from Illumina amplicon data","volume":"13","author":"Callahan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature Methods"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj.11747\/ref-9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1080\/19440040903479768","article-title":"Nicotine determination in mushrooms by LC\u2013MS\/MS with preliminary studies on the impact of drying on nicotine formation","volume":"27","author":"Cavalieri","year":"2010","journal-title":"Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.11747\/ref-10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s13225-013-0260-7","article-title":"Investigation and analysis of 102 mushroom poisoning cases in Southern China from 1994 to 2012","volume":"64","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Fungal Diversity"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.11747\/ref-11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1007\/978-90-481-3713-8_12","article-title":"The contribution of wild fungi to diet, income and health: a world review","volume-title":"Progress in Mycology","author":"De Roman","year":"2010"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj.11747\/ref-12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"628","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-0998.2009.02825.x","article-title":"Rapid and reliable high-throughput methods of DNA extraction for use in barcoding and molecular systematics of mushrooms","volume":"10","author":"Dentinger","year":"2010","journal-title":"Molecular Ecology Resources"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.11747\/ref-13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e570","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.570","article-title":"What\u2019s for dinner? 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