{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T20:51:01Z","timestamp":1792788661795,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,20]],"date-time":"2022-09-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1663632000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Shenzhen Science and Technology Innovation Commission 2020 Basic Research Project","award":["JCYJ20200109110630285"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JCYJ20200109110630285"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application and the China Astronaut Research and Training Center","award":["SMFA17A02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SMFA17A02"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application and the China Astronaut Research and Training Center","award":["SMFA18B02"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SMFA18B02"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application and the China Astronaut Research and Training Center","award":["SMFA18B06"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SMFA18B06"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application and the China Astronaut Research and Training Center","award":["SMFA19A01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SMFA19A01"]}]},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application and the China Astronaut Research and Training Center","award":["SMFA19C03"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SMFA19C03"]}]},{"name":"Space Medical Experiment Project of China Manned Space Program","award":["HYZHXM01002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HYZHXM01002"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Fasting has been widely used to improve various metabolic diseases in humans. Adaptive fasting is necessary for metabolic adaptation during prolonged fasting, which could overcome the great advantages of short-term fasting. The liver is the main organ responsible for energy metabolism and metabolic homeostasis. To date, we lack literature that describes the physiologically relevant adaptations of the liver during prolonged fasting and refeeding. For that reason, this study aims to evaluate the response of the liver of Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats to prolonged fasting and refeeding.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Sixty-six male SD rats were divided into the fasting groups, which were fasted for 0, 4, 8, 12, 24, 48, 72, or 96 h, and the refeeding groups, which were refed for 1, 3, or 6 days after 96 h of fasting. Serum glucose, TG, FFA,\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b2<\/jats:italic>\n                      -hydroxybutyrate, insulin, glucagon, leptin, adiponectin and FGF21 levels were assessed. The glucose content, PEPCK activity, TG concentration and FFA content were measured in liver tissue, and the expression of genes involved in gluconeogenesis (PEPCK and G6Pase), ketogenesis (PPAR\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b1<\/jats:italic>\n                      , CPT-1a and HMGCS2) and the protein expression of nutrient-sensing signaling molecules (AMPK, mTOR and SIRT1) were determined by RT-qPCR and western blotting, respectively.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Fasting significantly decreased the body weight, which was totally recovered to baseline after 3 days of refeeding. A 4-day fast triggered an energy metabolic substrate shift from glucose to ketones and caused serum hormone changes and changes in the protein expression levels of nutrient-sensing signaling molecules. Glycogenolysis served as the primary fuel source during the first 24 h of fasting, while gluconeogenesis supplied the most glucose thereafter. Serum FFA concentrations increased significantly with 48 h of fasting. Serum FFAs partly caused high serum\n                      <jats:italic>\u03b2<\/jats:italic>\n                      -hydroxybutyrate levels, which became an important energy source with the prolongation of the fasting duration. One day of refeeding quickly reversed the energy substrate switch. Nutrient-sensing signaling molecules (AMPK and SIRT1 but not mTOR signaling) were highly expressed at the beginning of fasting (in the first 4 h). Serum insulin and leptin decreased with fasting initiation, and serum glucagon increased, but adiponectin and FGF21 showed no significant changes. Herein, we depicted in detail the timing of the metabolic response and adaptation of the liver to a 4-day water-only fast and subsequent refeeding in rats, which provides helpful support for the design of safe prolonged and intermittent fasting regimens.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.14009","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,20]],"date-time":"2022-09-20T03:42:31Z","timestamp":1663645351000},"page":"e14009","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Hepatic metabolite responses to 4-day complete fasting and subsequent refeeding in rats"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"Xiukun","family":"Sui","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic and Information Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology at Shenzhen,  Shenzhen, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, Beijing, China"},{"name":"Space Science and Technology Institute, Shenzhen, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hailong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Feng","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chao","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hongyu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zihan","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yaxiu","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and Application, China Astronaut Research and Training Center, Beijing, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"ZhiFeng","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Space Medicine Fundamentals and 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