{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T07:16:05Z","timestamp":1774941365386,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":81,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]],"date-time":"2023-07-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1689552000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["NRF-2019R1F1A1061368"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2019R1F1A1061368"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003722","name":"World Institute of Kimchi","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["KE2202-2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["KE2202-2"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003722","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      Ultramicrobacteria (UMB), also known as ultra-small bacteria, are tiny bacteria with a size less than 0.1 \u00b5m\n                      <jats:sup>3<\/jats:sup>\n                      . They have a high surface-to-volume ratio and are found in various ecosystems, including the human body. UMB can be classified into two types: one formed through cell contraction and the other that maintains a small size. The ultra-small microbiome (USM), which may contain UMB, includes all bacteria less than 0.2 \u00b5m in size and is difficult to detect with current methods. However, it poses a potential threat to food hygiene, as it can pass through sterilization filters and exist in a viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state. The data on the USM of foods is limited. Some bacteria, including pathogenic species, are capable of forming UMB under harsh conditions, making it difficult to detect them through conventional culture techniques.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The study described above focused on exploring the diversity of USM in fermented cabbage samples from three different countries (South Korea, China, and Germany). The samples of fermented cabbage (kimchi, suancai, and sauerkraut) were purchased and stored in chilled conditions at approximately 4 \u00b0C until filtration. The filtration process involved two steps of tangential flow filtration (TFF) using TFF cartridges with different pore sizes (0.2 \u00b5m and 100 kDa) to separate normal size bacteria (NM) and USM. The USM and NM isolated via TFF were stored in a refrigerator at 4 \u00b0C until DNA extraction. The extracted DNA was then amplified using PCR and the full-length 16S rRNA gene was sequenced using single-molecule-real-time (SMRT) sequencing. The transmission electron microscope (TEM) was used to confirm the presence of microorganisms in the USM of fermented cabbage samples.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to identify the differences between USM and NM in fermented cabbages. Although the size of the USM (average 2,171,621 bp) was smaller than that of the NM (average 15,727,282 bp), diversity in USM (average\n                      <jats:italic>H<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2032\u00a0=\u00a01.32) was not lower than that in NM (average\n                      <jats:italic>H<\/jats:italic>\n                      \u2032\u00a0=\u00a01.22). In addition, some members in USM probably underwent cell shrinkage due to unfavorable environments, while others maintained their size. Major pathogens were not detected in the USM in fermented cabbages. Nevertheless, several potentially suspicious strains (genera\n                      <jats:italic>Cellulomonas<\/jats:italic>\n                      and\n                      <jats:italic>Ralstonia<\/jats:italic>\n                      ) were detected. Our method can be used to screen food materials for the presence of USM undetectable via conventional methods. USM and NM were efficiently separated using tangential flow filtration and analyzed via single-molecule real-time sequencing. The USM of fermented vegetables exhibited differences in size, diversity, and composition compared with the conventional microbiome. This study could provide new insights into the ultra-small ecosystem in fermented foods, including fermented cabbages.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.15680","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,7,17]],"date-time":"2023-07-17T03:18:30Z","timestamp":1689563910000},"page":"e15680","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Presence of an ultra-small microbiome in fermented cabbages"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Hae-Won","family":"Lee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hygienic Safety \u22c5\u00a0Materials Research Group, World Institute of Kimchi, Gwangju, Republic of Korea"},{"name":"Department of Biology and Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"So-Ra","family":"Yoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hygienic Safety 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