{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,11]],"date-time":"2026-08-11T02:33:08Z","timestamp":1786415588916,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,17]],"date-time":"2023-10-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1697500800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003246","name":"Dutch Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003246","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (NWO), under the Citius Altius Sanius program"},{"name":"Bosch eBike Systems and Royal Dutch Gazelle"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bicycles are more difficult to control at low speeds due to the vehicle\u2019s unstable low-speed dynamics. This issue might be exacerbated by factors such as aging, disturbances, and multi-tasking. To address this issue, we developed a prototype \u2018balance assist system\u2019 with Royal Dutch Gazelle and Bosch eBike Systems at Delft University of Technology, which includes an electric motor capable of providing additional steering torque. We implemented a speed-adaptive feedback controller to generate the additional steering torque to that of the rider. We conducted a study with 18 older and 14 younger cyclists to first examine the effect of aging, disturbances, and multi-tasking on cycling at lower forward speeds, and evaluate the effectiveness of the system in improving the stability of the rider-bicycle system while facing these challenges. The study consisted of two scenarios: a single-task scenario where participants rode the bicycle on a marked narrow straight-line track, and a multi-task scenario where participants performed a shoulder check task and followed visual cues while tracking the straight-line. We introduced handlebar disturbances using the steer motor in half of the trials in both scenarios. All trials were repeated with and without the balance assist system. We calculated the bicycle mean magnitude of roll and steering rate\u2014as indicators of bicycle balance control and required steering actions, respectively\u2014and the rider\u2019s mean magnitude of lean rate with respect to the ground to investigate the effect of the balance assist system on rider\u2019s lateral motion. Our results showed that aging, disturbances, and multi-tasking increased the roll rate, and the balance assist system was able to significantly reduce it. The effect size of the balance assist system in reducing the roll rate across all conditions was found to be larger in older cyclists, indicating a more substantial impact compared to younger cyclists. Disturbances and multi-tasking increased the steering rate, which was successfully reduced by the balance assist system. Aging did not significantly affect the steering rate. The rider\u2019s lean rate was not significantly affected by age, disturbances, or the balance assist, indicating that the upper body plays a minor role when riders have good steering control authority. Overall, our findings suggest that lateral motion and required steering action can be affected by age, multi-tasking, and handlebar disturbances which can endanger cyclists\u2019 safety, and the balance assist system has the potential to improve cycling safety and reduce the incidence of single-actor crashes. Further investigation on riders\u2019 contribution to control actions is required.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.16206","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,17]],"date-time":"2023-10-17T07:25:29Z","timestamp":1697527529000},"page":"e16206","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Bicycle balance assist system reduces roll and steering motion for young and older bicyclists during real-life safety challenges"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Leila","family":"Alizadehsaravi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomechatronic and Human-Machine Control Section, Biomechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime, and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, South Holland,  The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jason K.","family":"Moore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biomechatronic and Human-Machine Control Section, Biomechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime, and Materials Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, South Holland,  The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4443","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2022.03.01.481993","article-title":"Turning the head while biking makes older people lose cycling direction and balance","author":"Afschrift","year":"2022","journal-title":"BioRxiv"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-2","article-title":"Which factors drive training of standing balance in older adults?","author":"Alizadehsaravi","year":"2021","journal-title":"PhD thesis"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-020-05784-0","article-title":"Modulation of soleus muscle H-reflexes and ankle muscle co-contraction with surface compliance during unipedal balancing in young and older adults","volume":"238","author":"Alizadehsaravi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Experimental Brain Research"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1109\/MCS.2005.1499389","article-title":"Bicycle dynamics and control: adapted bicycles for education and research","volume":"25","author":"Astrom","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Control Systems"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s13037-021-00313-6","article-title":"Increased injury severity and hospitalization rates following crashes with e-bikes versus conventional bicycles: an observational cohort study from a regional level II trauma center in Switzerland","volume":"16","author":"Berk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Patient Safety in Surgery"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0149340","article-title":"On the skill of balancing while riding a bicycle","volume":"11","author":"Cain","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2738","DOI":"10.1080\/00423114.2022.2144388","article-title":"Experimental methods to measure the lateral characteristics of bicycle tyres\u2014a review","volume":"61","author":"Dell\u2019Orto","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vehicle System Dynamics"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1080\/00423114.2022.2048865","article-title":"Rider control identification in cycling taking into account steering torque feedback and sensory delays","volume":"61","author":"Dialynas","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vehicle System Dynamics"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-9","first-page":"70","article-title":"Guidelines for trust in future ATM systems: measures","author":"Goillau","year":"2003","journal-title":"European Air Traffic Management Programme"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCA.2011.2164244","article-title":"Modeling the manually controlled bicycle","volume":"42","author":"Hess","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics\u2014Part A: Systems and Humans"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e10461","DOI":"10.2196\/10461","article-title":"Increasing active transportation through E-Bike use: pilot study comparing the health benefits, attitudes, and beliefs surrounding e-bikes and conventional bikes","volume":"4","author":"Hoj","year":"2018","journal-title":"JMIR Public Health and Surveillance"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-12","first-page":"2021","article-title":"Some observations on human control of a bicycle","author":"Kooijman","year":"2009"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2016.06.018","article-title":"Riding performance on a conventional bicycle and a pedelec in low speed exercises: objective and subjective evaluation of middle-aged and older persons","volume":"42","author":"Kov\u00e1csov\u00e1","year":"2016","journal-title":"Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-14","article-title":"Fietsongevallen en snor-\/bromfietsongevallen in Nederland","author":"Krul","year":"2022"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1007\/s00113-021-00976-x","article-title":"Pedelec users get more severely injured compared to conventional cyclists","volume":"124","author":"Lefarth","year":"2021","journal-title":"Unfallchirurg"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2015.05.028","article-title":"The aging brain shows less flexible reallocation of cognitive resources during dual-task walking: a mobile brain\/body imaging (MoBI) study","volume":"117","author":"Malcolm","year":"2015","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"issue":"2084","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1955","DOI":"10.1098\/rspa.2007.1857","article-title":"Linearized dynamics equations for the balance and steer of a bicycle: a benchmark and review","volume":"463","author":"Meijaard","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-18","article-title":"Davis instrumented bicycle\u2014human control of a bicycle: Jason K. Moore","author":"Moore","year":"2012","journal-title":"PhD thesis"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2010.04.091","article-title":"Statistics of bicycle rider motion","volume":"2","author":"Moore","year":"2010","journal-title":"Procedia Engineering"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s11044-010-9225-8","article-title":"Rider motion identification during normal bicycling by means of principal component analysis","volume":"25","author":"Moore","year":"2011","journal-title":"Multibody System Dynamics"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12984-021-00978-1","article-title":"Quantitatively assessing aging effects in rapid motor behaviours: a cross-sectional study","volume":"19","author":"Moulton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-22","article-title":"European electric bike sales pass 5 million; all bikes 22 million","author":"News","year":"2020"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-23","article-title":"Lateral stability enhancement in a steer assist bicycle","author":"Nieuwenhuizen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Master\u2019s thesis"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-24","article-title":"Bicycle steering dynamics and self-stability: a summary report on work in progress","author":"Papadopoulos","year":"1987","journal-title":"Technical Report, Cornell Bicycle Research Project"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/proceedings2060218","article-title":"Some effects of crosswind on the lateral dynamics of a bicycle","author":"Schwab","year":"2018"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-26","article-title":"Some recent developments in bicycle dynamics and control","author":"Schwab","year":"2008"},{"issue":"1\u20136","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-27","first-page":"0608031","article-title":"On the stability and control of the bicycle","volume":"61","author":"Sharp","year":"2008","journal-title":"Applied Mechanics Reviews"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.13140\/RG.2.2.21236.24961","article-title":"Cyclists. SWOV Fact Sheet, June 2017. SWOV, The Hague","author":"SWOV","year":"2017"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj.16206\/ref-29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"R741","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00156.2018","article-title":"Impact of age on the development of fatigue during large and small muscle mass exercise","volume":"315","author":"Weavil","year":"2018","journal-title":"American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology"}],"container-title":["PeerJ"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/16206.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/16206.xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/16206.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/16206.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,17]],"date-time":"2023-10-17T07:25:45Z","timestamp":1697527545000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/16206"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,17]]},"references-count":29,"alternative-id":["10.7717\/peerj.16206"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717\/peerj.16206","archive":["CLOCKSS","LOCKSS","Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["2167-8359"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2167-8359","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,17]]},"article-number":"e16206"}}