{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T21:58:09Z","timestamp":1769723889034,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]],"date-time":"2024-11-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1732492800000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Conselleria de Educaci\u00f3n, Investigaci\u00f3n, Cultura y Deporte. Generalitat Valenciana, Spain","award":["BEST 2019\/074"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BEST 2019\/074"]}]},{"name":"Healthy Aging in Industrial Environment","award":["4 HAIE CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000798"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4 HAIE CZ.02.1.01\/0.0\/0.0\/16_019\/0000798"]}]},{"name":"University of Valencia, Spain","award":["UV-INV_EPDI-2015405"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UV-INV_EPDI-2015405"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>The interaction between joint kinematics and kinetics is usually assessed by linear correlation analysis, which does not imply causality. Understanding the causal links between these variables may help develop landing interventions to improve technique and create joint-specific strengthening programs to reduce reaction forces and injury risk.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyze the causal interaction between lower limb sagittal kinematics and vertical ground reaction force (VGRF) during single-leg jump landing in children who are jumpers (volleyball and gymnastics) and non-jumpers, using the causal empirical decomposition method. Our hypothesis is that children who participate in jumping sports, compared to those who do not, employ a different joint strategy to regulate ground reaction forces during landing, particularly at the ankle level.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Two groups were compared: the jumpers group (<jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic> = 14) and the non-jumpers (control group, <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic> = 11). The causal interaction between sagittal kinematics and VGRF was assessed using ensemble empirical mode decomposition (EEMD) and time series instantaneous phase dependence in bi-directional causality. The relative causal strength (RCS) between the time series was quantified as the relative ratio of absolute cause strength between kinematics and VGRF.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>A significant interaction between joint and group was found for RCS (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.035, <jats:italic>\u03b7<\/jats:italic><jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup><jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.14). The <jats:italic>post-hoc<\/jats:italic> analysis showed the jumpers group had higher ankle-to-VGRF RCS than the control group (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.017, <jats:italic>d<\/jats:italic> = 1.03), while in the control group the hip-to-VGRF RCS was higher than the ankle-to-VGRF RCS (<jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.004, <jats:italic>d<\/jats:italic> = 0.91).<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Based on the causal decomposition approach, our results indicate that practicing jumping sports increases the causal effect of ankle kinematics on ground reaction forces in children. While non-jumper children rely more on the hip to modulate reaction forces, jumper children differ from non-jumpers by their greater use of the ankle joint. These findings could be used to develop specific training programs to improve landing techniques according to practice level, potentially helping to reduce the risk of injury in both athletes and non-athletes.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.18502","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]],"date-time":"2024-11-25T12:10:12Z","timestamp":1732536612000},"page":"e18502","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Effect of kinematics on ground reaction force during single-leg jump landing in children: a causal decomposition approach in jumpers and non-jumpers"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3835-3368","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Carlos","family":"Cruz-Montecinos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Therapy\/Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Isaac","family":"Estevan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"AFIPS Research Group, Department of Physical Education, Arts and Music, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3617-2926","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jiri","family":"Skypala","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Movement Studies\/Human Motion Diagnostic Centre, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Claudio","family":"Tapia-Malebr\u00e1n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile"},{"name":"Department of Physical Therapy, Catholic University of Maule, Talca, Chile"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xavier","family":"Garc\u00eda-Mass\u00f3","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"HUMAG Research Group, Department of Physical Education, Arts and Music, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain, Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"4443","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-1","first-page":"509","article-title":"A systematic review of different jump-landing variables in relation to injuries","volume":"53","author":"Aerts","year":"2013","journal-title":"The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-021-01516-8","article-title":"Through the looking glass: a systematic review of longitudinal evidence, providing new insight for motor competence and health","volume":"52","author":"Barnett","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sports Medicine"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medengphy.2016.04.008","article-title":"Comparison of three methods for identifying the heelstrike transient during walking gait","volume":"38","author":"Blackburn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Medical Engineering & Physics"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2004.03.001","article-title":"Changes in ground reaction force during jump landing in subjects with functional instability of the ankle joint","volume":"19","author":"Caulfield","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clinical Biomechanics"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1109\/TDEI.2013.003839","article-title":"Self-adaptive partial discharge signal de-noising based on ensemble empirical mode decomposition and automatic morphological thresholding","volume":"21","author":"Chan","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2860","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-30359-8","article-title":"Comments on identifying causal relationships in nonlinear dynamical systems via empirical mode decomposition","volume":"13","author":"Chang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1007\/s11517-022-02736-4","article-title":"Detection of intermuscular coordination based on the causality of empirical mode decomposition","volume":"61","author":"Cruz-Montecinos","year":"2022","journal-title":"Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1249\/00005768-199201000-00018","article-title":"Effect of landing stiffness on joint kinetics and energetics in the lower extremity","volume":"24","author":"Devita","year":"1992","journal-title":"Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise"},{"issue":"17","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6414","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17176414","article-title":"Children\u2019s single-leg landing movement capability analysis according to the type of sport practiced","volume":"17","author":"Estevan","year":"2020","journal-title":"International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.4085\/1062-6050-46.1.5","article-title":"Ankle-dorsiflexion range of motion and landing biomechanics","volume":"46","author":"Fong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Athletic Training"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"833","DOI":"10.4085\/1062-6050-50.5.07","article-title":"Weight-bearing dorsiflexion range of motion and landing biomechanics in individuals with chronic ankle instability","volume":"50","author":"Hoch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Athletic Training"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2017.00883","article-title":"Neuromuscular training improves lower extremity biomechanics associated with knee injury during landing in 11\u201313 year old female netball athletes: a randomized control study","volume":"8","author":"Hopper","year":"2017","journal-title":"Frontiers in Physiology"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2020.09.006","article-title":"Time-frequency analysis of muscle activation patterns in people with chronic ankle instability during Landing and cutting tasks","volume":"82","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gait & Posture"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0043-114864","article-title":"Epidemiology of overuse injuries in youth team sports: a 3-year prospective study","volume":"38","author":"Lepp\u00e4nen","year":"2017","journal-title":"International Journal of Sports Medicine"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11486","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-15024-w","article-title":"Muscle function during single leg landing","volume":"12","author":"Maniar","year":"2022","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1177\/19417381211063456","article-title":"Association of ankle dorsiflexion and landing forces in jumping athletes","volume":"14","author":"Martinez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sports Health"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2009.01.019","article-title":"Reducing ground reaction forces in gymnastics\u2019 landings may increase internal loading","volume":"42","author":"Mills","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Biomechanics"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2010.07.013","article-title":"The association between lower extremity energy absorption and biomechanical factors related to anterior cruciate ligament injury","volume":"25","author":"Norcross","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clinical Biomechanics"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-19","first-page":"953","article-title":"Gait analysis by causal decomposition","volume":"29","author":"Peng","year":"2021"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.26603\/ijspt20190436","article-title":"Functional movement screen\u2122 in youth sport participants: evaluating the proficiency barrier for injury","volume":"14","author":"Pfeifer","year":"2019","journal-title":"International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.2519\/jospt.1999.29.6.352","article-title":"Effects of instruction in jumping technique and experience jumping on ground reaction forces","volume":"29","author":"Prapavessis","year":"1999","journal-title":"The Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546505281916","article-title":"Maturation leads to gender differences in landing force and vertical jump performance: a longitudinal study","volume":"34","author":"Quatman","year":"2006","journal-title":"The American Journal of Sports Medicine"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-23","first-page":"311","article-title":"Ground reaction forces among gymnasts and recreational athletes in drop landings","volume":"38","author":"Seegmiller","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Athletic Training"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1080\/00336297.2008.10483582","article-title":"A developmental perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical activity: an emergent relationship","volume":"60","author":"Stodden","year":"2008","journal-title":"Quest"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsams.2021.08.007","article-title":"What did the ankle say to the knee? Estimating knee dynamics during landing\u2014a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"25","author":"Tait","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport\/Sports Medicine Australia"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5130","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph18105130","article-title":"Contribution of lower extremity joints on energy absorption during soft landing","volume":"18","author":"Tamura","year":"2021","journal-title":"International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-021-01550-6","article-title":"Are landing patterns in jumping athletes associated with patellar tendinopathy? A systematic review with evidence gap map and meta-analysis","volume":"52","author":"Tayfur","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sports Medicine"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1177\/19417381211019683","article-title":"Ankle dorsiflexion affects hip and knee biomechanics during landing","volume":"14","author":"Taylor","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sports Health"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"336","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.2017-0145","article-title":"The effects of filter cutoff frequency on musculoskeletal simulations of high-impact movements","volume":"34","author":"Tomescu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Biomechanics"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.00794","article-title":"Effect of training-induced changes in Achilles tendon stiffness on muscle-tendon behavior during landing","volume":"9","author":"Werkhausen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Frontiers in Physiology"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.2519\/jospt.2014.5367","article-title":"Ability of sagittal kinematic variables to estimate ground reaction forces and joint kinetics in running","volume":"44","author":"Wille","year":"2014","journal-title":"The Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compbiomed.2024.108965","article-title":"Contribution of ankle motion pattern during landing to reduce the knee-related injury risk","volume":"180","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Computers in Biology and Medicine"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-05845-7","article-title":"Causal decomposition in the mutual causation system","volume":"9","author":"Yang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-30360-1","article-title":"Reply To: comments on identifying causal relationships in nonlinear dynamical systems via empirical mode decomposition","volume":"13","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.knee.2010.06.006","article-title":"Non-linear flexion relationships of the knee with the hip and ankle, and their relative postures during landing","volume":"18","author":"Yeow","year":"2011","journal-title":"The Knee"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2005.11.003","article-title":"Lower extremity biomechanics during the landing of a stop-jump task","volume":"21","author":"Yu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clinical Biomechanics"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1080\/14763140701841936","article-title":"Shock and impact reduction in moderate and strenuous landing activities","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sports Biomechanics\/International Society of Biomechanics in Sports"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18502\/ref-38","first-page":"2667","article-title":"Identification of neuromuscular causal relationship between brain and muscles in limb movement by using ensemble empirical mode decomposition based causal decomposition","author":"Zhang","year":"2019"}],"container-title":["PeerJ"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/18502.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/18502.xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/18502.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/18502.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]],"date-time":"2024-11-25T12:10:20Z","timestamp":1732536620000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/18502"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]]},"references-count":38,"alternative-id":["10.7717\/peerj.18502"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717\/peerj.18502","archive":["CLOCKSS","LOCKSS","Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["2167-8359"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2167-8359","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,25]]},"article-number":"e18502"}}