{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T21:40:48Z","timestamp":1792014048492,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]],"date-time":"2025-01-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738281600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"SECORE International","award":["NA19NMF0080078"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NA19NMF0080078"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>Larval propagation and seeding of scleractinian corals for restoration is a rapidly expanding field, with demonstrated applications to assist the recovery of declining populations on reefs. The process typically involves collecting coral reproductive material, facilitating <jats:italic>in vitro<\/jats:italic> fertilization (IVF), and settling and outplanting the resulting coral offspring. Optimizing IVF can reduce gamete wastage and increase larval yields for propagation, therefore improving the efficiency of this intervention.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>In this study we tested three IVF conditions in four Caribbean broadcast-spawning coral species (<jats:italic>i.e<\/jats:italic>., <jats:italic>Diploria labyrinthiformis<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Colpophyllia natans<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Pseudodiploria strigosa<\/jats:italic>, <jats:italic>Orbicella faveolata<\/jats:italic>) to determine sperm concentration, gamete age, and co-incubation time resulting in the highest fertilization success. For each species, we exposed eggs from a single dam to pooled sperm samples from three sires (1) at concentrations ranging from zero to 10<jats:sup>9<\/jats:sup> cell mL<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>, (2) after letting gametes age for 2 to 6 h, and (3) for a period of 15 to 120 min.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>These experiments revealed a gamete longevity of at least 4 h and clear minimum sperm concentration thresholds (&gt;10<jats:sup>5<\/jats:sup> to 10<jats:sup>6<\/jats:sup> cell mL<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>) in all four species. Fertilization took place much faster than expected (\u226415 min) in the three brain corals under study, whereas <jats:italic>O. faveolata<\/jats:italic> gametes required a co-incubation period of 60 to 120 min to achieve maximum IVF success.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Discussion<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>We present these results in the context of IVF data available for other hermaphroditic broadcast-spawning scleractinians. We then provide recommendations for coral breeding practitioners to maximize larval production from gamete collections, and finally, we discuss our findings\u2019 potential implications on fertilization dynamics during natural coral spawning events.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.18918","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]],"date-time":"2025-01-31T08:54:36Z","timestamp":1738313676000},"page":"e18918","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Optimizing <i>in vitro<\/i> fertilization in four Caribbean coral species"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Val\u00e9rie F.","family":"Chamberland","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"SECORE International, Miami, Florida, United States"},{"name":"CARMABI Foundation, Willemstad, Cura\u00e7ao"},{"name":"Department of Freshwater and Marine Ecology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2299-4582","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Matthew-James","family":"Bennett","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SECORE International, Miami, Florida, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tania","family":"Doblado Speck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SECORE International, Miami, Florida, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kelly R. W.","family":"Latijnhouwers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SECORE International, Miami, Florida, United States"},{"name":"CARMABI Foundation, Willemstad, Cura\u00e7ao"},{"name":"Department of Freshwater and Marine Ecology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0883-5064","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Margaret W.","family":"Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SECORE International, Miami, Florida, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4443","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e56468","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0056468","article-title":"Projected near-future levels of temperature and pCO2 reduce coral fertilization success","volume":"8","author":"Albright","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ecolsys.110308.120220","article-title":"Systematic and biogeographical patterns in the reproductive biology of scleractinian corals","volume":"40","author":"Baird","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13913","DOI":"10.1111\/rec.13913","article-title":"Applying coral breeding to reef restoration: best practices, knowledge gaps, and priority actions in a rapidly-evolving field","volume":"31","author":"Banaszak","year":"2023","journal-title":"Restoration Ecology"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-4","first-page":"66","volume-title":"Gu\u00eda pr\u00e1ctica para la restauraci\u00f3n con base en la producci\u00f3n de reclutas sexuales de corales con \u00e9nfasis en Acropora palmata","author":"Banaszak","year":"2018"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e01978","DOI":"10.1002\/eap.1978","article-title":"Considerations for maximizing the adaptive potential of restored coral populations in the western Atlantic","volume":"29","author":"Baums","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecological Applications"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-07055-6_3","article-title":"Maximizing genetic diversity in coral restoration projects","volume-title":"Coral Reef Conservation and Restoration in the Omics Age","author":"Baums","year":"2022"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-013-1012-6","article-title":"Genotypic variation influences reproductive success and thermal stress tolerance in the reef building coral, Acropora palmata","volume":"32","author":"Baums","year":"2013","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-023-02431-2","article-title":"Fertilisation kinetics among common Indo-Pacific broadcast spawning corals with distinct and shared functional traits","volume":"42","author":"Buccheri","year":"2023","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rsma.2018.02.002","article-title":"Assisted fertilization of threatened Staghorn Coral to complement the restoration of nurseries in Southeastern Dominican Republic","volume":"18","author":"Calle-Trivi\u00f1o","year":"2018","journal-title":"Regional Studies in Marine Science"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-016-1504-2","article-title":"The reproductive biology and early life ecology of a common Caribbean brain coral, Diploria labyrinthiformis (Scleractinia: Faviinae)","volume":"36","author":"Chamberland","year":"2017","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gecco.2015.10.005","article-title":"Restoration of critically endangered elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) populations using larvae reared from wild-caught gametes","volume":"4","author":"Chamberland","year":"2015","journal-title":"Global Ecology and Conservation"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-12","first-page":"545","article-title":"Echinodermata","volume-title":"Reproductive Biology of Invertebrates Vol. II: Spermatogenesis and Sperm Function","author":"Chia","year":"1983"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/953587","article-title":"Gametogenesis, embryogenesis, and fertilization ecology of Platygyra acuta in marginal nonreefal coral communities in Hong Kong","volume":"2014","author":"Chui","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Marine Sciences"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00349783","article-title":"Chemical aspects of mass spawning in corals. I. Sperm-attractant molecules in the eggs of the scleractinian coral Montipora digitata","volume":"118","author":"Coll","year":"1994","journal-title":"Marine Biology"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jembe.2019.151286","article-title":"Optimising conditions for in vitro fertilization success of Acropora tenuis, A. millepora and Favites colemani corals in northwestern Philippines","volume":"524","author":"dela Cruz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology"},{"issue":"658","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2019.00658","article-title":"Testing industrial-scale coral restoration techniques: harvesting and culturing wild coral-spawn slicks","volume":"6","author":"Doropoulos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Frontiers in Marine Science"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e30486","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0030486","article-title":"Weak prezygotic isolating mechanisms in threatened Caribbean Acropora corals","volume":"7","author":"Fogarty","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1086\/342075","article-title":"Sexual conflict and polyspermy under sperm-limited conditions: in situ evidence from field simulations with the free-spawning marine echinoid Evechinus chloroticus","volume":"160","author":"Franke","year":"2002","journal-title":"The American Naturalist"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1002\/jemt.10351","article-title":"Polyspermy prevention in marine invertebrates","volume":"61","author":"Gould","year":"2003","journal-title":"Microscopy Research and Technique"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-013-1114-1","article-title":"Closing the circle: is it feasible to rehabilitate reefs with sexually propagated corals?","volume":"33","author":"Guest","year":"2014","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-21","first-page":"74","article-title":"Rearing coral larvae for reef rehabilitation","volume-title":"Reef Rehabilitation Manual","author":"Guest","year":"2010"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.5479\/si.01960768.38.1","article-title":"Ex situ culture of Caribbean and Pacific coral larvae comparing various flow-through chambers","volume":"38","author":"Hagedorn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Smithsonian Contributions to the Marine Sciences"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2110559118","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2110559118","article-title":"Assisted gene flow using cryopreserved sperm in critically endangered coral","volume":"118","author":"Hagedorn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00569127","article-title":"Self- and cross-fertilization in scleractinian corals","volume":"90","author":"Heyward","year":"1986","journal-title":"Marine Biology"},{"issue":"6072","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1216055","article-title":"Turbulence, cleavage, and the naked embryo: a case for coral clones","volume":"335","author":"Heyward","year":"2012","journal-title":"Science"},{"issue":"1\u20134","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2003.08.027","article-title":"Maternal variability in the blacklip abalone, Haliotis rubra leach (Mollusca: Gastropoda): effect of egg size on fertilisation success","volume":"231","author":"Huchette","year":"2004","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1017\/S096719940900519X","article-title":"In vitro fertilization efficiency in coral Acropora digitifera","volume":"17","author":"Iguchi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Zygote"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-28","article-title":"IUCN Red List of Threatened Species","author":"IUCN","year":"2022"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.53642\/nrky9386","volume-title":"Rebuilding coral reefs: a decadal grand challenge","author":"Knowlton","year":"2021"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"837","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-015-1317-8","article-title":"High levels of inorganic nutrients affect fertilization kinetics, early development and settlement of the scleractinian coral Platygyra acuta","volume":"34","author":"Lam","year":"2015","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1038\/382153a0","article-title":"Effects of gamete traits on fertilization in the sea and the evolution of sexual dimorphism","volume":"382","author":"Levitan","year":"1996","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/icj025","article-title":"The relationship between egg size and fertilization success in broadcast-spawning marine invertebrates","volume":"46","author":"Levitan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Integrative and Comparative Biology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0014-3820.2004.tb01647.x","article-title":"Mechanisms of reproductive isolation among sympatric broadcast-spawning corals of the Montastraea annularis species complex","volume":"58","author":"Levitan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Evolution Education and Outreach"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jembe.2010.10.017","article-title":"Intraspecific egg size variation and sperm limitation in the broadcast spawning bivalve Macoma balthica","volume":"396","author":"Luttikhuizen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-35","article-title":"Caribbean coral spawning for research and restoration. NOAA\/TNC Coral Restoration Webinar Series","author":"Marhaver","year":"2017"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-36","article-title":"Coral spawning predictions for the Southern Caribbean 2007\u20132024, CARMABI, Cura\u00e7ao","author":"Marhaver","year":"2024"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e15813","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.15813","article-title":"Long-term survival, growth, and reproduction of Acropora palmata sexual recruits outplanted onto Mexican Caribbean reefs","volume":"11","author":"Mendoza Quiroz","year":"2023","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.2307\/1542579","article-title":"Conflicting morphological and reproductive species boundaries in the coral genus Platygyra","volume":"192","author":"Miller","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biological Bulletin"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-017-1651-0","article-title":"Clonal structure and variable fertilization success in Florida Keys broadcast-spawning corals","volume":"37","author":"Miller","year":"2018","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0242847","DOI":"10.1111\/rec.13512","article-title":"Settlement yields in large-scale in situ culture of Caribbean coral larvae for restoration","volume":"30","author":"Miller","year":"2022","journal-title":"Restoration Ecology"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1007\/s10126-008-9127-4","article-title":"Roles of calmodulin and calcium\/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase in flagellar motility regulation in the coral Acropora digitifera","volume":"11","author":"Morita","year":"2009","journal-title":"Marine Biotechnology"},{"issue":"22","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4574","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.02500","article-title":"Eggs regulate sperm flagellar motility initiation, chemotaxis and inhibition in the coral Acropora digitifera, A. gemmifera and A. tenuis","volume":"209","author":"Morita","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Biology"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e2418314121","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.241831412","article-title":"Allee effects limit coral fertilization success","volume":"121","author":"Mumby","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.3354\/meps09257","article-title":"Corals mass-cultured from eggs and transplanted as juveniles to their native, remote coral reef","volume":"436","author":"Nakamura","year":"2011","journal-title":"Marine Ecology Progress Series"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-45","article-title":"Version 3.1 Caribbean 5 km Regional Virtual Station Time Series Graphs for Aruba, Curacao, and Bonaire","author":"NOAA Coral Reef Watch","year":"2020"},{"issue":"4","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1007\/s00338-015-1338-3","article-title":"Influence of sperm dilution and gamete contact time on the fertilization rate of scleractinian corals","volume":"34","author":"Nozawa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"issue":"3","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.2307\/1542017","article-title":"Aspects of the fertilization ecology of broadcast spawning corals: sperm dilution effects and in situ measurements of fertilization","volume":"183","author":"Oliver","year":"1992","journal-title":"Biological Bulletin"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-48","volume-title":"R: a language and environment for statistical computing","author":"R Development Core Team","year":"2020"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.2306\/scienceasia1513-1874.2004.30.075","article-title":"Effects of egg size on fertilization and embryonic development of sibling tropical sea urchins (genus, Echinometra)","volume":"30","author":"Rahman","year":"2004","journal-title":"ScienceAsia"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.3354\/meps13206","article-title":"Sexual production of corals for reef restoration in the Anthropocene","volume":"635","author":"Randall","year":"2020","journal-title":"Marine Ecology Progress Series"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18084","DOI":"10.1038\/srep18084","article-title":"Suspended sediments limit coral sperm availability","volume":"5","author":"Ricardo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"issue":"20","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3644","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.008516","article-title":"Sex and flow: the consequences of fluid shear for sperm\u2013egg interactions","volume":"210","author":"Riffell","year":"2007","journal-title":"The Journal of Experimental Biology"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"544105","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2021.669505","article-title":"Assisted coral reproduction in the Dominican Republic: a successful story to replicate in the Caribbean","volume":"8","author":"Sellares-Blasco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Frontiers in Marine Science"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"121886","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2024.121886","article-title":"The AutoSpawner system\u2014automated ex situ spawning and fertilisation of corals for reef restoration","volume":"366","author":"Severati","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Environmental Management"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1172","DOI":"10.1111\/rec.13178","article-title":"Enhancing coral larval supply and seedling production using a special bundle collection system \u201ccoral larval cradle\u201d for large-scale coral restoration","volume":"28","author":"Suzuki","year":"2020","journal-title":"Restoration Ecology"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13498","DOI":"10.1111\/rec.13498","article-title":"Six priorities to advance the science and practice of coral reef restoration worldwide","volume":"29","author":"Vardi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Restoration Ecology"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00301646","article-title":"Predation on coral spawn by planktivorous fish","volume":"7","author":"Westneat","year":"1988","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"issue":"0","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"S53","DOI":"10.1007\/s003380050242","article-title":"Experimental hybridization and breeding incompatibilities within the mating systems of mass spawning reef corals","volume":"16","author":"Willis","year":"1997","journal-title":"Coral Reefs"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.18918\/ref-59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-5347(99)01744-9","article-title":"How severe is sperm limitation in natural populations of marine free-spawners?","volume":"15","author":"Yund","year":"2000","journal-title":"Trends in Ecology & Evolution"}],"container-title":["PeerJ"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/18918.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/18918.xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/18918.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/18918.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]],"date-time":"2025-01-31T08:54:48Z","timestamp":1738313688000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/18918"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]},"references-count":59,"alternative-id":["10.7717\/peerj.18918"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717\/peerj.18918","archive":["CLOCKSS","LOCKSS","Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["2167-8359"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2167-8359","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,31]]},"article-number":"e18918"}}