{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T17:07:31Z","timestamp":1790701651119,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,31]],"date-time":"2025-03-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743379200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Stella McCartney, Designer and Manufacturer for Luxury Fashion"},{"name":"Globetrotter Foundation\/#NoRegrets Initiative"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>A 4-year field study, on the adoption of a Biologically-Enhanced Agricultural Management (BEAM) protocol, in a cotton\/cover-crop rotation in Turkey, was designed to observe \u201cchange-over-time\u201d of soil organic carbon (SOC%) and total soil nitrogen (TSN%) at three soil profile depths (0\u201315 cm, 15\u201330 cm and 30\u201345 cm) while tracking farm productivity and profitability.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>BEAM systems employ regenerative practices: (a) no-till, (b) no, or reduced synthetic nutrient amendments, (c) continuous roots in the ground (commodity\/cover), accompanied with an injection (in-furrow at planting) of an extract of beneficial microbes, from a Johnson-Su bioreactor. Three field nitrogen treatments: (1) BEAM+100% N (203 kg N ha<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>); (2) BEAM+15% N (30.53 kg N ha<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>); and (3) BEAM-0% N (No N applied), were implemented, on a 5.22-hectare plot, to assess the influence of BEAM protocols and nitrogen amendments, on SOC%, TSN%, cotton production, and profitability.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>\n<jats:sec>\n<jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n<jats:p>The SOC%, in the 0\u201315 cm soil profile demonstrated a significant increase from 0.39% SOC to 1.83% SOC, for a total increase of 1.44%, over the 4-year study period, (y = 0.3136x + 0.1206; r<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup> = 0.96; F(1,2) = 45.1616, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.02143); The 15\u201330 cm soil profile demonstrated a non-significant loss of \u22120.23% SOC (y = \u22120.3161x + 0.156; r<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup> = 0.3183; F(1,2) = 0.9339, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.4358), and the 30\u201345 cm soil profile exhibited a significant increase of 0.28% SOC; (y = 0.0477x + 0.4743; r<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup> = 0.9363; F(1,2) = 29.4005, <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic> = 0.03237). Annual SOC cumulative increases of ~6.59 metric tons (t) carbon (C) ha<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>yr<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>, were observed, from 2019 to 2023, in the top 45 cm of the soil profile along with annual TSN increases of ~0.68 t N ha<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>yr<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup> in all three treatments. Cover-crop aboveground biomass increased annually in 2021, 2022 and 2023 from ~400 g, to ~692 g, to ~925 g dry biomass m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup>yr<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup> providing annual agroecosystem surface carbon accumulation of ~1.78 t C, ~3.08 t C and ~4.11 t C ha<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>. Earthworm populations increased from zero earthworms m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup> in 2019 to ~100 earthworms m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup> in 2023. BEAM protocols also promoted: (a) farm input reductions of: 100% for herbicide, 56% for insecticide, 61% for diesel fuel, 85% for synthetic nitrogen fertilizer, and 100% for phosphorus fertilizer applications, reducing farm input costs ~$470 ha<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>yr<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>. Adoption of a BEAM regenerative agricultural management system, increased: (a) SOC (~6.59 t C ha<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>yr<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>); (b) C in the annual growth of cover-crop biomass (~4.12 t of C ha<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>yr<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>); (c) carbon in residual surface cover-crop plant residues from previous annual cover crops (~0.82 t C ha<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>yr<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>); and (d) C exported in cotton lint (~0.77 t C ha<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>yr<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>). Total C avoidance included: (a) reductions in fertilizer, pesticides and diesel inputs (~0.33 t C ha<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>yr<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>); and (b) reduction of C respiration from adoption of zero-till (~0.64 t C ha<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>yr<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>). Adoption of BEAM management, in this cotton\/cover-crop agroecosystem, provided productive utilization, or avoidance of ~13.27 t of atmospheric C ha<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>yr<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>.<\/jats:p>\n<\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.19167","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,31]],"date-time":"2025-03-31T08:29:37Z","timestamp":1743409777000},"page":"e19167","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Adoption of a biologically-enhanced agricultural management (BEAM) approach in agroecosystems for regenerating soil fertility, improving farm profitability and achieving productive utilization of atmospheric CO<sub>2<\/sub>"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"David C.","family":"Johnson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hui-Chun Su","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4443","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,31]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19167\/ref-1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.55544\/jrasb.3.2.36","article-title":"Vermicompost: significance and benefits for agriculture","volume":"3","author":"Abad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal for Research in Applied Sciences and Biotechnology"},{"issue":"12","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19167\/ref-2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3619","DOI":"10.5194\/bg-13-3619-2016","article-title":"No-tillage lessens soil CO2 emissions the most under arid and sandy soil conditions: results from a meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Abdalla","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biogeosciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19167\/ref-3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12386","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-16719-w","article-title":"Net greenhouse gas balance with cover crops in semi-arid irrigated cropping systems","volume":"12","author":"Acharya","year":"2015","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19167\/ref-4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy13020542","article-title":"Microbial community in the composting process and its positive impact on the soil biota in sustainable agriculture","volume":"13","author":"Aguilar-Paredes","year":"2023","journal-title":"Agronomy"},{"issue":"46","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19167\/ref-5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11652","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1815901115","article-title":"Soil carbon sequestration is an elusive climate mitigation tool","volume":"115","author":"Amundson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"issue":"16","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19167\/ref-6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4775","DOI":"10.1111\/gcb.16208","article-title":"Earthworms as catalysts in the formation and stabilization of soil microbial necromass","volume":"28","author":"Angst","year":"2022","journal-title":"Global Change Biology"},{"issue":"1\u20133","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19167\/ref-7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soilbio.2021.108189","article-title":"Plant- or microbial-derived? 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