{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T19:12:09Z","timestamp":1787166729705,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,9]],"date-time":"2025-06-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749427200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Caffeine (CAF) intake is measured in absolute daily amounts or doses per kilogram of body weight. However, both methods are not entirely appropriate. The activity of liver enzymes that metabolise caffeine may be reduced in obese individuals, and plasma caffeine concentrations may vary depending on the fat-to-free-fat mass ratio. This study investigates the relationship between, between body fat percentage and the plasma concentrations of caffeine and its metabolites in women.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      This experimental study with a between-group comparison design included 38 women (age 25.5 \u00b1 2.7 years; body weight 66.5 \u00b1 15.3 kg). Body fat percentage was measured using bioimpedance analysis (mBCA 515 SECA analyzer), and participants were categorized as non-obese (\u226430% body fat,\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 14) or obese (&gt;30% body fat,\n                      <jats:italic>n<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 24). Both groups received a dose of 6 mg\/kg body weight of caffeine. Blood samples were taken 60 min after caffeine ingestion, and the concentrations of caffeine and its metabolites in plasma were determined by high-pressure liquid chromatography. The Mann-Whitney U test assessed CAF, paraxanthine (PX), and theobromine (TB) concentrations, while Spearman\u2019s correlation analyzed variable relationships. General linear model (GLM) compared caffeine metabolite levels, and GPower determined the required sample size (44) for large effects.\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>\n                      The results showed that the obese group had significantly higher caffeine (Mdn = 10.64\n                      <jats:italic>vs<\/jats:italic>\n                      . Mdn = 2.32) and PX concentrations (Mdn = 1.73\n                      <jats:italic>vs<\/jats:italic>\n                      . Mdn = 0.85) compared to the non-obese group, with significant differences (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      &lt; 0.001 and\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 0.007, respectively). However, no significant difference in TB concentration was observed\n                      <jats:italic>(p<\/jats:italic>\n                      = 0.486). A linear model revealed that group membership significantly influenced CAF concentration (\n                      <jats:italic>p<\/jats:italic>\n                      &lt; 0.001), explaining 56.8% of its variance. PX and TB concentrations showed poor model fits, with minimal explanatory power from group, age, fat mass, and body mass index (BMI). Correlation analysis found strong associations between CAF concentration and fat mass (rho = 0.689).\n                    <\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Higher body fat percentage is associated with increased plasma caffeine and paraxanthine concentrations following a weight-based caffeine dose. These findings suggest that body fat percentage may be a more relevant factor than total body weight in caffeine metabolism, with potential implications for personalized caffeine dosing guidelines.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.19480","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,9]],"date-time":"2025-06-09T04:23:39Z","timestamp":1749443019000},"page":"e19480","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Body fat percentage is a key factor in elevated plasma levels of caffeine and its metabolite in women"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Przemys\u0142aw","family":"Domaszewski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Opole, Opole, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7995-0882","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Mariusz","family":"Konieczny","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Opole University of Technology, Opole, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pawe\u0142","family":"Pakosz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Opole University of Technology, Opole, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jakub","family":"Matuska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Poliwoda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Opole, Opole, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"El\u017cbieta","family":"Skorupska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5462-5108","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Manel","family":"Santafe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rovira i Virgili University, Reus, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4443","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.19480\/ref-1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1089\/caff.2017.0011","article-title":"Kinetic and dynamic description of caffeine","volume":"60","author":"Alsabri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Caffeine Research"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19480\/ref-2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1186\/s42269-022-00829-6","article-title":"Is the consumption of energy drink beneficial or detrimental to health: a comprehensive review?","volume":"46","author":"Ariffin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bulletin of the National Research Centre"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19480\/ref-3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01061844","article-title":"Comparative pharmacokinetics of caffeine in young and elderly men","volume":"11","author":"Blanchard","year":"1983","journal-title":"Journal of Pharmacokinetics and Biopharmaceutics"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19480\/ref-4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1038\/clpt.1982.132","article-title":"Caffeine disposition after oral doses","volume":"32","author":"Bonati","year":"1982","journal-title":"Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics"},{"issue":"5","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19480\/ref-5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.2165\/11599410-000000000-00000","article-title":"Impact of obesity on drug metabolism and elimination in adults and children","volume":"51","author":"Brill","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clinical Pharmacokinetics"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19480\/ref-6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"931","DOI":"10.1007\/s40262-014-0166-x","article-title":"Midazolam pharmacokinetics in morbidly obese patients following semi-simultaneous oral and intravenous administration: a comparison with healthy volunteers","volume":"53","author":"Brill","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clinical Pharmacokinetics"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19480\/ref-7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1080\/27697061.2023.2172749","article-title":"Caffeine consumption in polish adults: development and validation of a polish questionnaire for assessing caffeine intake","volume":"42","author":"Bulczak","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of the American Nutrition Association"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19480\/ref-8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2014.07.003","article-title":"Impact of caffeine and coffee on our health","volume":"25","author":"de Mejia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.7717\/peerj.19480\/ref-9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3823","DOI":"10.1007\/s00394-022-02874-3","article-title":"Risk or benefit? 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