{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,16]],"date-time":"2026-04-16T20:34:46Z","timestamp":1776371686907,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]],"date-time":"2026-01-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768176000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Institute of Health Research and Development, Ministry of Health, Republic of Indonesia","award":["HK\/02.02\/1\/1410\/2019"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HK\/02.02\/1\/1410\/2019"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"\n Background<\/jats:title>\n \n Leprosy remains a public health challenge in Indonesia, which ranks third globally after India and Brazil. Subclinical infection among household contacts contributes to ongoing transmission, as individuals infected with\n Mycobacterium leprae<\/jats:italic>\n (\n M. leprae<\/jats:italic>\n ) without symptoms may serve as undetected reservoirs. This study investigated serological and sociodemographic determinants associated with subclinical\n M. leprae<\/jats:italic>\n infection among household contacts of leprosy patients in Tangerang, Indonesia.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Methods<\/jats:title>\n \n A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2020 among 320 household contacts of confirmed leprosy index cases recruited through purposive sampling. Anti-Phenolic Glycolipid-1 (PGL-1) IgM antibodies were detected using an in-house enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Bivariate analysis using Chi-square and\n t<\/jats:italic>\n -tests assessed preliminary associations, and multivariate logistic regression was applied to identify independent predictors of seropositivity, adjusting for potential confounders.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Results<\/jats:title>\n \n Overall, 43.8% of household contacts were seropositive for anti-PGL-1 IgM antibodies. Multivariate analysis revealed that a history of Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccination was associated with significantly lower odds of seropositivity (adjusted OR = 0.514; 95% CI [0.291\u20130.907];\n p<\/jats:italic>\n = 0.018), while the presence of a visible BCG scar was associated with nearly twofold higher odds (adjusted OR = 1.953; 95% CI [1.117\u20133.415];\n p<\/jats:italic>\n = 0.024). No significant associations were found between sociodemographic factors such as age, sex, or contact duration, and seropositivity.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>\n \n Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n \n BCG vaccination status and visible BCG scars were key determinants of anti-PGL-1 seropositivity, suggesting complex interactions between vaccination, immune response, and exposure to\n M. leprae<\/jats:italic>\n . The study highlights the protective role of BCG-induced immunity while emphasizing the need for standardized scar assessment and continuous surveillance of household contacts. Although limited by its cross-sectional and purposive design, the integration of immunological and epidemiological data represents a strength, providing evidence to support Indonesia\u2019s Zero Leprosy 2030 control strategy.\n <\/jats:p>\n <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.20631","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]],"date-time":"2026-01-12T08:55:37Z","timestamp":1768208137000},"page":"e20631","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Determinants of subclinical leprosy among household contacts in Indonesia: serological and socio-demographic factors"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Khariri","family":"Khariri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Research, Research Organization for Health, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sunarno","family":"Sunarno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Research, Research Organization for Health, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Novaria Sari Dewi","family":"Panjaitan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Research, Research Organization for Health, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7322-0915","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Putu","family":"Yuliandari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Research, Research Organization for Health, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sarwo","family":"Handayani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Research, Research Organization for Health, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rita Marleta","family":"Dewi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Research, Research Organization for Health, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nastiti Intan Permata","family":"Sari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Research, Research Organization for Health, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fitriana","family":"Fitriana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Research, Research Organization for Health, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0597-4464","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Agriani Dini","family":"Pasiana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Biomedical Research, Research Organization for Health, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ina","family":"Kusrini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Directorate of Evaluation Policy Research and Innovation, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Cibinong, West Java, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6903-3407","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Edwin Nugroho","family":"Njoto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine and Health, Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"4443","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,12]]},"reference":[{"issue":"5","key":"10.7717\/peerj.20631\/ref-1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3892\/BR.2021.1464","article-title":"A 5-year evaluation of chemoprophylactic treatment in elementary school children with subclinical leprosy","volume":"15","author":"Astari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biomedical Reports"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.20631\/ref-2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.25259\/ijpgd_36_2022","article-title":"Diagnosis of leprosy: current updates and future 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