{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T08:47:52Z","timestamp":1785833272181,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785801600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Ongoing Research Funding Program, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia","award":["ORF-2026-1490"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ORF-2026-1490"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Environmentally benign synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using plant-derived materials has emerged as an attractive strategy for producing functional nanomaterials while avoiding hazardous chemical procedures. In the present study, aqueous extracts of\n                    <jats:italic>Thymus vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                    obtained from Syrian and Yemeni commercial sources were employed for the green synthesis of AgNPs, followed by a comparative physicochemical characterization. To our knowledge, this is among the few studies comparing the physicochemical characteristics of AgNPs synthesized using\n                    <jats:italic>T. vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                    extracts obtained from two different commercial sources. UV-Vis spectroscopy revealed distinct absorption bands at 319.1 nm and 282.9 nm for the Syrian- and Yemeni-derived preparations, respectively. Dynamic light scattering analysis showed hydrodynamic diameters of 84.18 nm and 125.2 nm, whereas zeta potential measurements yielded values of \u221226.9 mV and \u221230.1 mV, indicating negatively charged nanoparticle surfaces. Quantitative TEM analysis based on measurements of 50 nanoparticles per sample revealed average particle diameters of 13.38\u00a0\u00b1\u00a05.26 nm and 12.34\u00a0\u00b1\u00a05.31 nm for Syrian- and Yemeni-derived AgNPs, respectively. SEM and TEM analyses demonstrated predominantly spherical nanoparticles with varying degrees of aggregation. EDS analysis confirmed silver as the major elemental constituent, while XRD analysis verified the crystalline metallic nature of the nanoparticles with a face-centered cubic structure and estimated crystallite sizes of 11.3 nm and 8.3 nm, respectively. Overall, the findings demonstrate that\n                    <jats:italic>Thymus vulgaris<\/jats:italic>\n                    extracts can serve as effective reducing and stabilizing agents for the green synthesis of crystalline silver nanoparticles. Although minor physicochemical differences were observed between the two nanoparticle preparations, further studies incorporating detailed phytochemical characterization are required to clarify the factors underlying these variations.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.21583","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T08:40:22Z","timestamp":1785832822000},"page":"e21583","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Comparative green synthesis and physicochemical characterization of silver nanoparticles using\n                    <i>Thymus vulgaris<\/i>\n                    extracts from Syrian and Yemeni sources"],"prefix":"10.7717","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Aiman Abdullah","family":"Ammari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ramzi Ahmed","family":"Amran","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bandar Mohsen","family":"ALmunqedhi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department OF Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmad Rashed","family":"Alhimaidi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"4443","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]]},"reference":[{"issue":"9","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1929","DOI":"10.3390\/plants10091929","article-title":"Green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles using selected medicinal plants from southern Africa and their biological applications","volume":"10","author":"Aboyewa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Plants"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrras.2015.06.006","article-title":"Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Azadirachta indica aqueous leaf extract","volume":"9","author":"Ahmed","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e244675","DOI":"10.1590\/1519-6984.244675","article-title":"Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Thymus vulgaris essential oil and synthesized silver nanoparticles","volume":"83","author":"Aldosary","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brazilian Journal of Biology"},{"issue":"8","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.3390\/pr9081304","article-title":"Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using extract of Artemisia absinthium L., Humulus lupulus L. and Thymus vulgaris L., physico-chemical characterization, antimicrobial and antioxidant activity","volume":"9","author":"Balciunaitiene","year":"2021","journal-title":"Processes"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6562687","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/6562687","article-title":"Plant-extract-mediated synthesis of metal nanoparticles","volume":"2021","author":"Bao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Chemistry"},{"issue":"13","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7202","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22137202","article-title":"Silver nanoparticles and their antibacterial applications","volume":"22","author":"Bruna","year":"2021","journal-title":"International Journal of Molecular Sciences"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1088\/978-0-7503-3379-5ch17","article-title":"Zeta potential measurements and analysis for biomedical nanotechnology","volume-title":"Analytical techniques for biomedical nanotechnology","author":"Das","year":"2023"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1324805","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2023.1324805","article-title":"Plant-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles: unlocking their pharmacological potential\u2014a comprehensive review","volume":"11","author":"Dhir","year":"2023","journal-title":"Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.2147\/IJN.S446017","article-title":"Characterization, synthesis, and biological activities of silver nanoparticles produced via green synthesis method using Thymus Vulgaris aqueous extract","volume":"19","author":"Ejaz","year":"2024","journal-title":"International Journal of Nanomedicine"},{"issue":"10","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.3390\/plants13101375","article-title":"Exploring chemical variability in the essential oils of the Thymus genus","volume":"13","author":"Etri","year":"2024","journal-title":"Plants"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-11","volume-title":"Zeta potential in colloid science: principles and applications","author":"Hunter","year":"1981"},{"issue":"11","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.3390\/horticulturae8111042","article-title":"The yield, chemical composition, and antioxidant activities of essential oils from different plant parts of the wild and cultivated oregano (Origanum vulgare L.)","volume":"8","author":"Ili\u0107","year":"2022","journal-title":"Horticulturae"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1599113","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2025.1599113","article-title":"Silver nanoparticles as next-generation antimicrobial agents: mechanisms, challenges, and innovations against multidrug-resistant bacteria","volume":"15","author":"Khalifa","year":"2025","journal-title":"Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology"},{"issue":"35","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11988","DOI":"10.1039\/c8dt01152d","article-title":"Plant extracts as green reductants for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles: Lessons from chemical synthesis","volume":"47","author":"Khan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dalton Transactions"},{"issue":"9","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2446","DOI":"10.1039\/d5na00037h","article-title":"A review on the green synthesis of metal (Ag, Cu, and Au) and metal oxide (ZnO, MgO, Co3O4, and TiO2) nanoparticles using plant extracts for developing antimicrobial properties","volume":"7","author":"Lithi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nanoscale Advances"},{"issue":"2","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19020674","article-title":"A review on plants and microorganisms mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles, role of plants metabolites and applications","volume":"19","author":"Mustapha","year":"2022","journal-title":"International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"015026","DOI":"10.1088\/2632-959X\/ad2fd1","article-title":"Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using plant waste extracts","volume":"5","author":"Rigopoulos","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nano Express"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"128580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.128580","article-title":"Biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles and environmental applications","volume":"264","author":"Saravanan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"issue":"1","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5019","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-84449-6","article-title":"Polyphenolic and molecular variation in Thymus species","volume":"11","author":"Sarfaraz","year":"2021","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"issue":"38","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e03764","DOI":"10.1002\/slct.202503764","article-title":"Green synthesis and bioactivity of Thymus pectinatus-derived silver nanoparticles","volume":"10","author":"\u015eim\u015fek","year":"2025","journal-title":"ChemistrySelect"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-nbt.2017.0261","article-title":"One-pot green synthesis and structural characterisation of silver nanoparticles using aqueous leaves extract of Carissa carandas: antioxidant, anticancer and antibacterial activities","volume":"12","author":"Singh","year":"2018","journal-title":"IET Nanobiotechnology"},{"issue":"19","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2616","DOI":"10.3390\/nano13192616","article-title":"Advances in phytonanotechnology and plant-mediated nanoparticle synthesis","volume":"13","author":"Thatyana","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nanomaterials"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiotec.2024.08.009","article-title":"Plant-based synthesis, characterization approaches, applications and toxicity of silver nanoparticles: a comprehensive review","volume":"394","author":"Thomas","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of Biotechnology"},{"key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-07125-6_11","article-title":"Ultraviolet\u2013visible (UV\u2013Vis) spectroscopy","volume-title":"Springer handbook of advanced catalyst characterization","author":"Vogt","year":"2023"},{"issue":"7","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e07448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2021.e07448","article-title":"Mechanistic aspects of plant-based silver nanoparticles","volume":"7","author":"Wahab","year":"2021","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"issue":"6","key":"10.7717\/peerj.21583\/ref-26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1344","DOI":"10.3390\/plants12061344","article-title":"Chemical composition of essential oils in plant genotypes","volume":"12","author":"Zinno","year":"2023","journal-title":"Plants"}],"container-title":["PeerJ"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/21583.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/21583.xml","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/21583.html","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/21583.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]],"date-time":"2026-08-04T08:40:24Z","timestamp":1785832824000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/peerj.com\/articles\/21583"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]]},"references-count":26,"alternative-id":["10.7717\/peerj.21583"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7717\/peerj.21583","archive":["CLOCKSS","LOCKSS","Portico"],"relation":{},"ISSN":["2167-8359"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2167-8359","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,4]]},"article-number":"e21583"}}