{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T09:09:44Z","timestamp":1781773784501,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"PeerJ","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,11]],"date-time":"2019-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1552262400000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["31760723"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31760723"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["31260595"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["31260595"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Research Project of Graduate Teacher of Higher Education in Gansu Province","award":["0602-09"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0602-09"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Background<\/jats:title><jats:p>Bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT), distributed in the bronchial mucosa, plays a critical role in maintaining the mucosal immune homeostasis of the lower respiratory tract. The bronchial tree is a functional structure for gas exchange with the outside environment and maintains basic lung morphology.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title><jats:p>To explore the structural and distributive characteristics of BALT in Bactrian camels, twelve healthy adult Bactrian camels were divided into two groups (six in each group). The lungs, bronchial tree and BALT were observed and analysed systematically through anatomical and histological methods.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results<\/jats:title><jats:p>The results showed that Bactrian camel lungs were constituted by the left cranial lobe, left caudal lobe, right cranial lobe, right caudal lobe and accessory lobe, but lacked the middle lobe. The cranial lobe was narrow and small, the caudal lobe was extremely developed (almost four times the cranial lobe in size), and the accessory lobe was smaller than the cranial lobe; the bronchial tree, an unequal dichotomy with a tracheobronchial branch, was composed of dorsal, ventral, lateral and medial bronchiole systems. Isolated lymphoid follicles (the chief type) and aggregates of lymphoid follicles revealed two types of BALT, and germinal centres, follicle-associated epithelium and high endothelial venules could be observed in some well-developed BALT. Additionally, BALT was scattered along the bronchial tree in the entire lung, and the density increased from the trachea to the lower graded branches (densest in the bronchioles) and then decreased, with the occasional location around respiratory bronchioles or among the pulmonary mesenchyme. In the conducting portion, BALT was primarily located in the mucosa lamina propria but was also found in the submucosa, under the muscular layer, and around the submucosal glands and cartilage.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title><jats:p>The results demonstrated that the lung morphology of Bactrian camels was similar to that of horses, but the bronchial branches were more closely related to those of ruminants. These characteristics were in accordance with the morphological and structural variation regularity of lungs with species evolution. BALT was mainly scattered in the conducting portion, and bronchioles, as the final \u201ccheckpoint\u201d in the surveillance, capture and recognition of antigens before pulmonary exchange, were the pivotal locational position of BALT. However, BALT at different depths of the bronchial wall of the conducting portion might be at different developmental stages. Our study provided evidence for further insight into the mucosal immunomodulatory mechanism of BALT in the respiratory system of Bactrian camels.<\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.6571","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,11]],"date-time":"2019-03-11T09:23:41Z","timestamp":1552296221000},"page":"e6571","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["The distributive and structural characteristics of bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) in Bactrian camels (<i>Camelus 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