{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T05:11:37Z","timestamp":1778908297203,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]},"DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.108930","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T04:48:44Z","timestamp":1778906924000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cauda Equina Syndrome: A Narrative Review Exploring the Pathophysiology, Clinical Spectrum, Diagnostic Strategies, and Time-Critical Management"],"prefix":"10.7759","author":[{"given":"Tharun T","family":"Aduri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pankaj K","family":"Mishra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Virendra","family":"Verma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Naman","family":"Jain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Swasti S","family":"Prasad","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5435\/00124635-200808000-00006","article-title":"Cauda equina syndrome","volume":"16","author":"Spector LR","year":"2008","unstructured":"Spector LR, Madigan L, Rhyne A, Darden B 2nd, Kim D. Cauda equina syndrome. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2008, 16:471-9. 10.5435\/00124635-200808000-00006","journal-title":"J Am Acad Orthop Surg"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2019.158402","article-title":"Evaluation and management of cauda equina syndrome in the emergency department","volume":"38","author":"Long B","year":"2020","unstructured":"Long B, Koyfman A, Gottlieb M. Evaluation and management of cauda equina syndrome in the emergency department. Am J Emerg Med. 2020, 38:143-8. 10.1016\/j.ajem.2019.158402","journal-title":"Am J Emerg Med"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3171\/2019.12.SPINE19839","article-title":"What is the incidence of cauda equina syndrome? A systematic review","volume":"32","author":"Hoeritzauer I","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hoeritzauer I, Wood M, Copley PC, Demetriades AK, Woodfield J. What is the incidence of cauda equina syndrome? A systematic review. J Neurosurg Spine. 2020, 32:832-41. 10.3171\/2019.12.SPINE19839","journal-title":"J Neurosurg Spine"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-010-1668-3","article-title":"Cauda equina syndrome: a review of the current clinical and medico-legal position","volume":"20","author":"Gardner A","year":"2011","unstructured":"Gardner A, Gardner E, Morley T. Cauda equina syndrome: a review of the current clinical and medico-legal position. Eur Spine J. 2011, 20:690-7. 10.1007\/s00586-010-1668-3","journal-title":"Eur Spine J"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-200002010-00015","article-title":"Medical realities of cauda equina syndrome secondary to lumbar disc herniation","volume":"25","author":"Shapiro S","year":"2000","unstructured":"Shapiro S. Medical realities of cauda equina syndrome secondary to lumbar disc herniation. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2000, 25:348-51. 10.1097\/00007632-200002010-00015","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM193408022110506","article-title":"Rupture of the intervertebral disc with involvement of the spinal canal","volume":"211","author":"Mixter WJ","year":"1934","unstructured":"Mixter WJ, Barr JS. Rupture of the intervertebral disc with involvement of the spinal canal. N Engl J Med. 1934, 211:210-5. 10.1056\/NEJM193408022110506","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-199402001-00020","article-title":"Acute cauda equina syndrome. Diagnostic advantage of MRI","volume":"19","author":"Coscia M","year":"1994","unstructured":"Coscia M, Leipzig T, Cooper D. Acute cauda equina syndrome. Diagnostic advantage of MRI. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1994, 19:475-8. 10.1097\/00007632-199402001-00020","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0285006","article-title":"Definition and surgical timing in cauda equina syndrome-an updated systematic review","volume":"18","author":"Mustafa MA","year":"2023","unstructured":"Mustafa MA, Richardson GE, Gillespie CS, Islim AI, Wilby M, Clark S, Srikandarajah N. Definition and surgical timing in cauda equina syndrome-an updated systematic review. PLoS One. 2023, 18:e0285006. 10.1371\/journal.pone.0285006","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00264-021-05273-1","article-title":"Cauda equina syndrome-a practical guide to definition and classification","volume":"46","author":"Lavy C","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lavy C, Marks P, Dangas K, Todd N. Cauda equina syndrome-a practical guide to definition and classification. Int Orthop. 2022, 46:165-9. 10.1007\/s00264-021-05273-1","journal-title":"Int Orthop"},{"key":"ref10","article-title":"Anatomy, Back, Cauda Equina","author":"Berg EJ","year":"2026","unstructured":"Berg EJ, Ashurst JV. Anatomy, Back, Cauda Equina. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island, FL; 2026."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0301-0082(00)00065-4","article-title":"Cauda equina syndrome","volume":"64","author":"Orend\u00e1cov\u00e1 J","year":"2001","unstructured":"Orend\u00e1cov\u00e1 J, C\u00edzkov\u00e1 D, Kafka J, et al.. Cauda equina syndrome. Prog Neurobiol. 2001, 64:613-37. 10.1016\/s0301-0082(00)00065-4","journal-title":"Prog Neurobiol"},{"key":"ref12","article-title":"Arteries and veins of the lumbar nerve roots and cauda equina","volume":"4","author":"Dommisse GF","year":"1976","unstructured":"Dommisse GF, Grobler L. Arteries and veins of the lumbar nerve roots and cauda equina. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1976, 4:22-9.","journal-title":"Clin Orthop Relat Res"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.2106\/00004623-198163010-00007","article-title":"Arterial vascularization of the cauda equina","volume":"63","author":"Parke WW","year":"1981","unstructured":"Parke WW, Gammell K, Rothman RH. Arterial vascularization of the cauda equina. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1981, 63:53-62.","journal-title":"J Bone Joint Surg Am"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0000000000003045","article-title":"Compressive pressure versus time in cauda equina syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental studies","volume":"44","author":"Pronin S","year":"2019","unstructured":"Pronin S, Koh CH, Bulovaite E, Macleod MR, Statham PF. Compressive pressure versus time in cauda equina syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis of experimental studies. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2019, 44:1238-47. 10.1097\/BRS.0000000000003045","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.22197","article-title":"Changes of blood flow, oxygen tension, action potential and vascular permeability induced by arterial ischemia or venous congestion on the spinal cord in canine model","volume":"31","author":"Kobayashi S","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kobayashi S, Yoshizawa H, Shimada S, Guerrero AR, Miyachi M. Changes of blood flow, oxygen tension, action potential and vascular permeability induced by arterial ischemia or venous congestion on the spinal cord in canine model. J Orthop Res. 2013, 31:139-46. 10.1002\/jor.22197","journal-title":"J Orthop Res"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-199511001-00003","article-title":"A model for acute, chronic, and delayed graded compression of the dog cauda equina. Neurophysiologic and histologic changes induced by acute, graded compression","volume":"20","author":"Sato K","year":"1995","unstructured":"Sato K, Konno S, Yabuki S, Mao GP, Olmarker K, Kikuchi S. A model for acute, chronic, and delayed graded compression of the dog cauda equina. Neurophysiologic and histologic changes induced by acute, graded compression. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1995, 20:2386-91. 10.1097\/00007632-199511001-00003","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-199708150-00018","article-title":"Clinical analysis of two-level compression of the cauda equina and the nerve roots in lumbar spinal canal stenosis","volume":"22","author":"Sato K","year":"1997","unstructured":"Sato K, Kikuchi S. Clinical analysis of two-level compression of the cauda equina and the nerve roots in lumbar spinal canal stenosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1997, 22:1898-903. 10.1097\/00007632-199708150-00018","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2013.02.033","article-title":"Mitochondrial swelling and microtubule depolymerization are associated with energy depletion in axon degeneration","volume":"238","author":"Park JY","year":"2013","unstructured":"Park JY, Jang SY, Shin YK, et al.. Mitochondrial swelling and microtubule depolymerization are associated with energy depletion in axon degeneration. Neuroscience. 2013, 238:258-69. 10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2013.02.033","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2022.959598","article-title":"Mitochondrial behavior when things go wrong in the axon","volume":"16","author":"Pozo Devoto VM","year":"2022","unstructured":"Pozo Devoto VM, Onyango IG, Stokin GB. Mitochondrial behavior when things go wrong in the axon. Front Cell Neurosci. 2022, 16:959598. 10.3389\/fncel.2022.959598","journal-title":"Front Cell Neurosci"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.22-08-03052.2002","article-title":"The cytokine network of Wallerian degeneration: tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1alpha, and interleukin-1beta","volume":"22","author":"Shamash S","year":"2002","unstructured":"Shamash S, Reichert F, Rotshenker S. The cytokine network of Wallerian degeneration: tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1alpha, and interleukin-1beta. J Neurosci. 2002, 22:3052-60. 10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.22-08-03052.2002","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.15438","article-title":"Spinal interleukin-1\u03b2 induces mechanical spinal hyperexcitability in rats: interactions and redundancies with TNF and IL-6","volume":"158","author":"K\u00f6nig C","year":"2021","unstructured":"K\u00f6nig C, Vazquez E, E\u00df S, Ebbinghaus M, Vorpahl B, Ebersberger A, Schaible HG. Spinal interleukin-1\u03b2 induces mechanical spinal hyperexcitability in rats: interactions and redundancies with TNF and IL-6. J Neurochem. 2021, 158:898-911. 10.1111\/jnc.15438","journal-title":"J Neurochem"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2013.03.005","article-title":"The neuroinflammatory role of Schwann cells in disease","volume":"55","author":"Ydens E","year":"2013","unstructured":"Ydens E, Lornet G, Smits V, Goethals S, Timmerman V, Janssens S. The neuroinflammatory role of Schwann cells in disease. Neurobiol Dis. 2013, 55:95-103. 10.1016\/j.nbd.2013.03.005","journal-title":"Neurobiol Dis"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241813946","article-title":"Use of cells, supplements, and peptides as therapeutic strategies for modulating inflammation after spinal cord injury: an update","volume":"24","author":"Garcia E","year":"2023","unstructured":"Garcia E, Buzoianu-Anguiano V, Silva-Garcia R, et al.. Use of cells, supplements, and peptides as therapeutic strategies for modulating inflammation after spinal cord injury: an update. Int J Mol Sci. 2023, 24:26-8. 10.3390\/ijms241813946","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01616412.2021.2024737","article-title":"N-Acetylcysteine alleviates spinal cord injury in rats after early decompression surgery by regulating inflammation and apoptosis","volume":"44","author":"Guo X","year":"2022","unstructured":"Guo X, He J, Zhang R, et al.. N-Acetylcysteine alleviates spinal cord injury in rats after early decompression surgery by regulating inflammation and apoptosis. Neurol Res. 2022, 44:605-13. 10.1080\/01616412.2021.2024737","journal-title":"Neurol Res"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2020.05.260","article-title":"Are there any risk factors associated with the presence of cauda equina syndrome in symptomatic lumbar disk herniation?","volume":"141","author":"Kaiser R","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kaiser R, Krajcov\u00e1 A, Waldauf P, Srikandarajah N, Makel M, Bene\u0161 V. Are there any risk factors associated with the presence of cauda equina syndrome in symptomatic lumbar disk herniation?. World Neurosurg. 2020, 141:e600-5. 10.1016\/j.wneu.2020.05.260","journal-title":"World Neurosurg"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-015-4206-5","article-title":"Association of collagen I, IX and vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms with radiological severity of intervertebral disc degeneration in Southern European ancestor","volume":"24","author":"Tokta\u015f ZO","year":"2015","unstructured":"Tokta\u015f ZO, Ek\u015fi M\u015e, Y\u0131lmaz B, Demir MK, \u00d6zgen S, K\u0131l\u0131\u00e7 T, Konya D. Association of collagen I, IX and vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms with radiological severity of intervertebral disc degeneration in Southern European ancestor. Eur Spine J. 2015, 24:2432-41. 10.1007\/s00586-015-4206-5","journal-title":"Eur Spine J"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-199108001-00025","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of cauda equina entrapment in the vertical lamina fracture of lumbar burst fractures","volume":"16","author":"Denis F","year":"1991","unstructured":"Denis F, Burkus JK. Diagnosis and treatment of cauda equina entrapment in the vertical lamina fracture of lumbar burst fractures. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1991, 16:S433-9.","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"key":"ref28","article-title":"Spinal epidural hematoma causing acute cauda equina syndrome","volume":"16","author":"Kebaish KM","year":"2004","unstructured":"Kebaish KM, Awad JN. Spinal epidural hematoma causing acute cauda equina syndrome. Neurosurg Focus. 2004, 16:e1.","journal-title":"Neurosurg Focus"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinane.2016.09.032","article-title":"A patient with postpolio syndrome developed cauda equina syndrome after neuraxial anesthesia: a case report","volume":"37","author":"Tseng WC","year":"2017","unstructured":"Tseng WC, Wu ZF, Liaw WJ, Hwa SY, Hung NK. A patient with postpolio syndrome developed cauda equina syndrome after neuraxial anesthesia: a case report. J Clin Anesth. 2017, 37:49-51. 10.1016\/j.jclinane.2016.09.032","journal-title":"J Clin Anesth"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3171\/foc.2004.16.6.2","article-title":"Infectious origins of cauda equina syndrome","volume":"16","author":"Cohen DB","year":"2004","unstructured":"Cohen DB. Infectious origins of cauda equina syndrome. Neurosurg Focus. 2004, 16:e2. 10.3171\/foc.2004.16.6.2","journal-title":"Neurosurg Focus"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2009.03.021","article-title":"Cauda equina syndrome: a literature review of its definition and clinical presentation","volume":"90","author":"Fraser S","year":"2009","unstructured":"Fraser S, Roberts L, Murphy E. Cauda equina syndrome: a literature review of its definition and clinical presentation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2009, 90:1964-8. 10.1016\/j.apmr.2009.03.021","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-017-4943-8","article-title":"Cauda Equina Syndrome: presentation, outcome, and predictors with focus on micturition, defecation, and sexual dysfunction","volume":"26","author":"Korse NS","year":"2017","unstructured":"Korse NS, Pijpers JA, van Zwet E, Elzevier HW, Vleggeert-Lankamp CL. Cauda Equina Syndrome: presentation, outcome, and predictors with focus on micturition, defecation, and sexual dysfunction. Eur Spine J. 2017, 26:894-904. 10.1007\/s00586-017-4943-8","journal-title":"Eur Spine J"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-025-08732-0","article-title":"Assessment and early investigation of cauda equina syndrome-a systematic review of existing international guidelines and summary of the current evidence","volume":"34","author":"Hennessy O","year":"2025","unstructured":"Hennessy O, Devitt AT, Synnott K, Timlin M. Assessment and early investigation of cauda equina syndrome-a systematic review of existing international guidelines and summary of the current evidence. Eur Spine J. 2025, 34:1545-51. 10.1007\/s00586-025-08732-0","journal-title":"Eur Spine J"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2019.10.198","article-title":"Atypical cauda equina syndrome with lower limb clonus: a literature review and case report","volume":"134","author":"Mirza AB","year":"2020","unstructured":"Mirza AB, Akhbari M, Lavrador JP, Maratos EC. Atypical cauda equina syndrome with lower limb clonus: a literature review and case report. World Neurosurg. 2020, 134:507-9. 10.1016\/j.wneu.2019.10.198","journal-title":"World Neurosurg"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2021.07.021","article-title":"Evaluation and management of cauda equina syndrome","volume":"134","author":"Kuris EO","year":"2021","unstructured":"Kuris EO, McDonald CL, Palumbo MA, Daniels AH. Evaluation and management of cauda equina syndrome. Am J Med. 2021, 134:1483-9. 10.1016\/j.amjmed.2021.07.021","journal-title":"Am J Med"},{"key":"ref36","article-title":"Urinary retention in adults: diagnosis and initial management","volume":"77","author":"Selius BA","year":"2008","unstructured":"Selius BA, Subedi R. Urinary retention in adults: diagnosis and initial management. Am Fam Physician. 2008, 77:643-50.","journal-title":"Am Fam Physician"},{"key":"ref37","article-title":"Cauda equina syndrome due to lumbar disc prolapse","volume":"1","author":"Tandon PN","year":"1967","unstructured":"Tandon PN, Sankaran B. Cauda equina syndrome due to lumbar disc prolapse. Indian J Orthop. 1967, 1:112-9.","journal-title":"Indian J Orthop"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/0268869021000032887","article-title":"Cauda equina syndrome: what is the relationship between timing of surgery and outcome?","volume":"16","author":"Gleave JR","year":"2002","unstructured":"Gleave JR, Macfarlane R. Cauda equina syndrome: what is the relationship between timing of surgery and outcome?. Br J Neurosurg. 2002, 16:325-8. 10.1080\/0268869021000032887","journal-title":"Br J Neurosurg"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/emermed-2023-213151","article-title":"Diagnosis of cauda equina syndrome in the emergency department","volume":"40","author":"Metcalfe D","year":"2023","unstructured":"Metcalfe D, Hoeritzauer I, Angus M, Novak A, Hutton M, Woodfield J. Diagnosis of cauda equina syndrome in the emergency department. Emerg Med J. 2023, 40:787-93. 10.1136\/emermed-2023-213151","journal-title":"Emerg Med J"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02688697.2021.2005775","article-title":"Evaluation of the role of anal tone and perianal sensation examination in the assessment of suspected cauda equina syndrome","volume":"38","author":"Curtis Lopez C","year":"2024","unstructured":"Curtis Lopez C, Berg AJ, Clayton B, Siddique I, Carrasco R, Horner D, Angus M. Evaluation of the role of anal tone and perianal sensation examination in the assessment of suspected cauda equina syndrome. Br J Neurosurg. 2024, 38:923-7. 10.1080\/02688697.2021.2005775","journal-title":"Br J Neurosurg"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2024.110870","article-title":"Differential diagnosis between recurrent disc herniation and granulation tissue after lumbar disc herniation surgery: qualitative analysis on MRI scans","volume":"129","author":"Asan Z","year":"2024","unstructured":"Asan Z, Tozak Yildiz H. Differential diagnosis between recurrent disc herniation and granulation tissue after lumbar disc herniation surgery: qualitative analysis on MRI scans. J Clin Neurosci. 2024, 129:110870. 10.1016\/j.jocn.2024.110870","journal-title":"J Clin Neurosci"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1148\/rg.2020190135","article-title":"CT myelography: clinical indications and imaging findings","volume":"40","author":"Patel DM","year":"2020","unstructured":"Patel DM, Weinberg BD, Hoch MJ. CT myelography: clinical indications and imaging findings. Radiographics. 2020, 40:470-84. 10.1148\/rg.2020190135","journal-title":"Radiographics"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0000000000003152","article-title":"Bladder scans and postvoid residual volume measurement improve diagnostic accuracy of cauda equina syndrome","volume":"44","author":"Venkatesan M","year":"2019","unstructured":"Venkatesan M, Nasto L, Tsegaye M, Grevitt M. Bladder scans and postvoid residual volume measurement improve diagnostic accuracy of cauda equina syndrome. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2019, 44:1303-8. 10.1097\/BRS.0000000000003152","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-019-06277-7","article-title":"Cauda equina syndrome: false-positive diagnosis of neurogenic bladder can be reduced by multichannel urodynamic study","volume":"29","author":"Kalidindi KK","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kalidindi KK, Chhabra HS, Suman D, Mannem A, Bhat MR. Cauda equina syndrome: false-positive diagnosis of neurogenic bladder can be reduced by multichannel urodynamic study. Eur Spine J. 2020, 29:1236-47. 10.1007\/s00586-019-06277-7","journal-title":"Eur Spine J"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.22414","article-title":"Utility of sphincter electromyography and sacral reflex studies in women with cauda equina lesions","volume":"33","author":"Podnar S","year":"2014","unstructured":"Podnar S. Utility of sphincter electromyography and sacral reflex studies in women with cauda equina lesions. Neurourol Urodyn. 2014, 33:426-30. 10.1002\/nau.22414","journal-title":"Neurourol Urodyn"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000200844","article-title":"Prognostic factors and treatments efficacy in spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma: a multicenter retrospective study","volume":"99","author":"Peng D","year":"2022","unstructured":"Peng D, Yan M, Liu T, et al.. Prognostic factors and treatments efficacy in spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma: a multicenter retrospective study. Neurology. 2022, 99:e843-50. 10.1212\/WNL.0000000000200844","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2011.01.018","article-title":"Minimally invasive discectomy for the treatment of disc herniation causing cauda equina syndrome","volume":"18","author":"Shih P","year":"2011","unstructured":"Shih P, Smith TR, Fessler RG, Song JK. Minimally invasive discectomy for the treatment of disc herniation causing cauda equina syndrome. J Clin Neurosci. 2011, 18:1219-23. 10.1016\/j.jocn.2011.01.018","journal-title":"J Clin Neurosci"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.spinee.2017.04.023","article-title":"Early intervention in cauda equina syndrome associated with better outcomes: a myth or reality? Insights from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample database (2005-2011)","volume":"17","author":"Thakur JD","year":"2017","unstructured":"Thakur JD, Storey C, Kalakoti P, et al.. Early intervention in cauda equina syndrome associated with better outcomes: a myth or reality? Insights from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample database (2005-2011). Spine J. 2017, 17:1435-48. 10.1016\/j.spinee.2017.04.023","journal-title":"Spine J"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-021-07001-0","article-title":"Outcomes of cauda equina syndrome due to lumbar disc herniation after surgical management and the factors affecting it: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 22 studies with 852 cases","volume":"31","author":"Kumar V","year":"2022","unstructured":"Kumar V, Baburaj V, Rajnish RK, Dhatt SS. Outcomes of cauda equina syndrome due to lumbar disc herniation after surgical management and the factors affecting it: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 22 studies with 852 cases. Eur Spine J. 2022, 31:353-63. 10.1007\/s00586-021-07001-0","journal-title":"Eur Spine J"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007632-200006150-00010","article-title":"Cauda equina syndrome secondary to lumbar disc herniation: a meta-analysis of surgical outcomes","volume":"25","author":"Ahn UM","year":"2000","unstructured":"Ahn UM, Ahn NU, Buchowski JM, Garrett ES, Sieber AN, Kostuik JP. Cauda equina syndrome secondary to lumbar disc herniation: a meta-analysis of surgical outcomes. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2000, 25:1515-22. 10.1097\/00007632-200006150-00010","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/BRS.0000000000000813","article-title":"Does early surgical decompression in cauda equina syndrome improve bladder outcome?","volume":"40","author":"Srikandarajah N","year":"2015","unstructured":"Srikandarajah N, Boissaud-Cooke MA, Clark S, Wilby MJ. Does early surgical decompression in cauda equina syndrome improve bladder outcome?. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2015, 40:580-3. 10.1097\/BRS.0000000000000813","journal-title":"Spine (Phila Pa 1976)"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-011-1840-4","article-title":"Outcome of spinal decompression in cauda equina syndrome presenting late in developing countries: case series of 50 cases","volume":"20","author":"Dhatt S","year":"2011","unstructured":"Dhatt S, Tahasildar N, Tripathy SK, Bahadur R, Dhillon M. Outcome of spinal decompression in cauda equina syndrome presenting late in developing countries: case series of 50 cases. Eur Spine J. 2011, 20:2235-9. 10.1007\/s00586-011-1840-4","journal-title":"Eur Spine J"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3928\/01477447-20140124-18","article-title":"Efficacy of delayed decompression of lumbar disk herniation causing cauda equina syndrome","volume":"37","author":"Aly TA","year":"2014","unstructured":"Aly TA, Aboramadan MO. Efficacy of delayed decompression of lumbar disk herniation causing cauda equina syndrome. Orthopedics. 2014, 37:e153-6. 10.3928\/01477447-20140124-18","journal-title":"Orthopedics"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00345-018-2419-z","article-title":"Non-surgical urologic management of neurogenic bladder after spinal cord injury","volume":"36","author":"Romo PG","year":"2018","unstructured":"Romo PG, Smith CP, Cox A, et al.. Non-surgical urologic management of neurogenic bladder after spinal cord injury. World J Urol. 2018, 36:1555-68. 10.1007\/s00345-018-2419-z","journal-title":"World J Urol"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0003-9993(97)90416-0","article-title":"Neurogenic bowel dysfunction after spinal cord injury: clinical evaluation and rehabilitative management","volume":"78","author":"Stiens SA","year":"1997","unstructured":"Stiens SA, Bergman SB, Goetz LL. Neurogenic bowel dysfunction after spinal cord injury: clinical evaluation and rehabilitative management. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1997, 78:S86-102. 10.1016\/s0003-9993(97)90416-0","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10790268.2001.11753592","article-title":"Pressure ulcer prevention and treatment following spinal cord injury: a clinical practice guideline for health-care professionals","volume":"24","year":"2001","unstructured":"Pressure ulcer prevention and treatment following spinal cord injury. a clinical practice guideline for health-care professionals. J Spinal Cord Med. 2001, 24:S40-101. 10.1080\/10790268.2001.11753592","journal-title":"J Spinal Cord Med"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1997.03540440031029","article-title":"Administration of methylprednisolone for 24 or 48 hours or tirilazad mesylate for 48 hours in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury. Results of the Third National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Randomized Controlled Trial. National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study","volume":"277","author":"Bracken MB","year":"1997","unstructured":"Bracken MB, Shepard MJ, Holford TR, et al.. Administration of methylprednisolone for 24 or 48 hours or tirilazad mesylate for 48 hours in the treatment of acute spinal cord injury. Results of the Third National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Randomized Controlled Trial. National Acute Spinal Cord Injury Study. JAMA. 1997, 277:1597-604.","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s005860050180","article-title":"Predictors of outcome in cauda equina syndrome","volume":"8","author":"Kennedy JG","year":"1999","unstructured":"Kennedy JG, Soffe KE, McGrath A, Stephens MM, Walsh MG, McManus F. Predictors of outcome in cauda equina syndrome. Eur Spine J. 1999, 8:317-22. 10.1007\/s005860050180","journal-title":"Eur Spine J"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0003-9993(99)90204-6","article-title":"Incomplete spinal cord injury: neuronal mechanisms of motor recovery and hyperreflexia","volume":"80","author":"Little JW","year":"1999","unstructured":"Little JW, Ditunno JF, Stiens SA, Harris RM. Incomplete spinal cord injury: neuronal mechanisms of motor recovery and hyperreflexia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999, 80:587-99. 10.1016\/s0003-9993(99)90204-6","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2020.7303","article-title":"Factors associated with recovery in motor strength, walking ability, and bowel and bladder function after traumatic cauda equina injury","volume":"38","author":"Attabib N","year":"2021","unstructured":"Attabib N, Kurban D, Cheng CL, et al.. Factors associated with recovery in motor strength, walking ability, and bowel and bladder function after traumatic cauda equina injury. J Neurotrauma. 2021, 38:322-9. 10.1089\/neu.2020.7303","journal-title":"J Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41393-025-01097-7","article-title":"A qualitative study of experiencing cauda equina syndrome and its aftercare in the UK","volume":"63","author":"Srikandarajah N","year":"2025","unstructured":"Srikandarajah N, Clark S, Wilby M, Marson T, Noble A. A qualitative study of experiencing cauda equina syndrome and its aftercare in the UK. Spinal Cord. 2025, 63:426-31. 10.1038\/s41393-025-01097-7","journal-title":"Spinal Cord"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0255530","article-title":"Long-term mental wellbeing and functioning after surgery for cauda equina syndrome","volume":"16","author":"Hazelwood JE","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hazelwood JE, Hoeritzauer I, Carson A, Stone J, Demetriades AK. Long-term mental wellbeing and functioning after surgery for cauda equina syndrome. PLoS One. 2021, 16:e0255530. 10.1371\/journal.pone.0255530","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lanepe.2022.100545","article-title":"Presentation, management, and outcomes of cauda equina syndrome up to one year after surgery, using clinician and participant reporting: a multi-centre prospective cohort study","volume":"24","author":"Woodfield J","year":"2023","unstructured":"Woodfield J, Hoeritzauer I, Jamjoom AA, et al.. Presentation, management, and outcomes of cauda equina syndrome up to one year after surgery, using clinician and participant reporting: a multi-centre prospective cohort study. Lancet Reg Health Eur. 2023, 24:100545. 10.1016\/j.lanepe.2022.100545","journal-title":"Lancet Reg Health Eur"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(21)00464-6","article-title":"Cell-based and stem-cell-based treatments for spinal cord injury: evidence from clinical trials","volume":"21","author":"Zipser CM","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zipser CM, Cragg JJ, Guest JD, Fehlings MG, Jutzeler CR, Anderson AJ, Curt A. Cell-based and stem-cell-based treatments for spinal cord injury: evidence from clinical trials. Lancet Neurol. 2022, 21:659-70. 10.1016\/S1474-4422(21)00464-6","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms26115048","article-title":"Rewiring the spine-cutting-edge stem cell therapies for spinal cord repair","volume":"26","author":"Riza YM","year":"2025","unstructured":"Riza YM, Alzahrani FA. Rewiring the spine-cutting-edge stem cell therapies for spinal cord repair. Int J Mol Sci. 2025, 26:23-5. 10.3390\/ijms26115048","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2023.1095259","article-title":"Electrical stimulation for the treatment of spinal cord injuries: a review of the cellular and molecular mechanisms that drive functional improvements","volume":"17","author":"Dorrian RM","year":"2023","unstructured":"Dorrian RM, Berryman CF, Lauto A, Leonard AV. Electrical stimulation for the treatment of spinal cord injuries: a review of the cellular and molecular mechanisms that drive functional improvements. Front Cell Neurosci. 2023, 17:1095259. 10.3389\/fncel.2023.1095259","journal-title":"Front Cell Neurosci"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2025.114938","article-title":"N-acetylcysteine loaded electrospun core\/shell nanofibers: a promising system for ferroptosis in spinal cord injury","volume":"218","author":"Gunes M","year":"2026","unstructured":"Gunes M, \u00d6cal GK, K\u0131l\u0131cl\u0131 B, Ozturk AM, Armagan G, Karavana SY. N-acetylcysteine loaded electrospun core\/shell nanofibers: a promising system for ferroptosis in spinal cord injury. Eur J Pharm Biopharm. 2026, 218:114938. 10.1016\/j.ejpb.2025.114938","journal-title":"Eur J Pharm Biopharm"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/jpp\/rgaa041","article-title":"Effects of minocycline on motor function recovery and expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein and brain-derived neurotrophic factor after spinal cord injury in rats","volume":"73","author":"Xu J","year":"2021","unstructured":"Xu J, Ji J, Wang Z, Xu T. Effects of minocycline on motor function recovery and expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein and brain-derived neurotrophic factor after spinal cord injury in rats. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2021, 73:332-7. 10.1093\/jpp\/rgaa041","journal-title":"J Pharm Pharmacol"}],"container-title":["Cureus"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/483908-cauda-equina-syndrome-a-narrative-review-exploring-the-pathophysiology-clinical-spectrum-diagnostic-strategies-and-time-critical-management","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,16]],"date-time":"2026-05-16T04:48:51Z","timestamp":1778906931000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/483908-cauda-equina-syndrome-a-narrative-review-exploring-the-pathophysiology-clinical-spectrum-diagnostic-strategies-and-time-critical-management"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]},"references-count":68,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7759\/cureus.108930","relation":{},"ISSN":["2168-8184"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2168-8184","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,15]]}}}