{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T08:01:33Z","timestamp":1781164893934,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]]},"DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.110637","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T07:44:06Z","timestamp":1781163846000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Thyroid-Liver Axis: Mechanistic Insights and Clinical Implications"],"prefix":"10.7759","author":[{"given":"Naima","family":"Parveen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sachin","family":"Chittawar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deepak","family":"Khandelwal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sameer","family":"Aggarwal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2018.10","article-title":"Direct effects of thyroid hormones on hepatic lipid metabolism","volume":"14","author":"Sinha RA","year":"2018","unstructured":"Sinha RA, Singh BK, Yen PM. Direct effects of thyroid hormones on hepatic lipid metabolism. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018, 14:259-69. 10.1038\/nrendo.2018.10","journal-title":"Nat Rev Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2025.0178","article-title":"Metabolic and functional cross talk between the thyroid and liver","volume":"35","author":"Chng CL","year":"2025","unstructured":"Chng CL, Goh GB, Yen PM. Metabolic and functional cross talk between the thyroid and liver. Thyroid. 2025, 35:607-23. 10.1089\/thy.2025.0178","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2010.04.028","article-title":"TR\u03b2 is the critical thyroid hormone receptor isoform in T3-induced proliferation of hepatocytes and pancreatic acinar cells","volume":"53","author":"Kowalik MA","year":"2010","unstructured":"Kowalik MA, Perra A, Pibiri M, et al.. TR\u03b2 is the critical thyroid hormone receptor isoform in T3-induced proliferation of hepatocytes and pancreatic acinar cells. J Hepatol. 2010, 53:686-92. 10.1016\/j.jhep.2010.04.028","journal-title":"J Hepatol"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2016-1300","article-title":"Thyroid function and the risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: the Rotterdam Study","volume":"101","author":"Bano A","year":"2016","unstructured":"Bano A, Chaker L, Plompen EP, et al.. Thyroid function and the risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: the Rotterdam Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016, 101:3204-11. 10.1210\/jc.2016-1300","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI60047","article-title":"Mechanisms of thyroid hormone action","volume":"122","author":"Brent GA","year":"2012","unstructured":"Brent GA. Mechanisms of thyroid hormone action. J Clin Invest. 2012, 122:3035-43. 10.1172\/JCI60047","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/11795514221074672","article-title":"Hyperthyroidism and liver dysfunction: a review of a common comorbidity","volume":"15","author":"Yorke E","year":"2022","unstructured":"Yorke E. Hyperthyroidism and liver dysfunction: a review of a common comorbidity. Clin Med Insights Endocrinol Diabetes. 2022, 15:11795514221074672. 10.1177\/11795514221074672","journal-title":"Clin Med Insights Endocrinol Diabetes"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2014.0201","article-title":"Non-thyroidal illness in the ICU: a syndrome with different faces","volume":"24","author":"Van den Berghe G","year":"2014","unstructured":"Van den Berghe G. Non-thyroidal illness in the ICU: a syndrome with different faces. Thyroid. 2014, 24:1456-65. 10.1089\/thy.2014.0201","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(15)00225-9","article-title":"Thyroid function in critically ill patients","volume":"3","author":"Fliers E","year":"2015","unstructured":"Fliers E, Bianco AC, Langouche L, Boelen A. Thyroid function in critically ill patients. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015, 3:816-25. 10.1016\/S2213-8587(15)00225-9","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2021.0621","article-title":"Thyroid hormone decreases hepatic steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis in a dietary mouse model of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis","volume":"32","author":"Zhou J","year":"2022","unstructured":"Zhou J, Tripathi M, Ho JP, et al.. Thyroid hormone decreases hepatic steatosis, inflammation, and fibrosis in a dietary mouse model of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Thyroid. 2022, 32:725-38. 10.1089\/thy.2021.0621","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2309000","article-title":"A phase 3, randomized, controlled trial of resmetirom in NASH with liver fibrosis","volume":"390","author":"Harrison SA","year":"2024","unstructured":"Harrison SA, Bedossa P, Guy CD, et al.. A phase 3, randomized, controlled trial of resmetirom in NASH with liver fibrosis. N Engl J Med. 2024, 390:497-509. 10.1056\/NEJMoa2309000","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.15930","article-title":"The first MASH drug therapy on the horizon: current perspectives of resmetirom","volume":"44","author":"Petta S","year":"2024","unstructured":"Petta S, Targher G, Romeo S, Pajvani UB, Zheng MH, Aghemo A, Valenti LV. The first MASH drug therapy on the horizon: current perspectives of resmetirom. Liver Int. 2024, 44:1526-36. 10.1111\/liv.15930","journal-title":"Liver Int"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/me.2010-0095","article-title":"Minireview: thyroid hormone transporters: the knowns and the unknowns","volume":"25","author":"Visser WE","year":"2011","unstructured":"Visser WE, Friesema EC, Visser TJ. Minireview: thyroid hormone transporters: the knowns and the unknowns. Mol Endocrinol. 2011, 25:1-14. 10.1210\/me.2010-0095","journal-title":"Mol Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2015.66","article-title":"Thyroid hormone transporters: functions and clinical implications","volume":"11","author":"Bernal J","year":"2015","unstructured":"Bernal J, Guada\u00f1o-Ferraz A, Morte B. Thyroid hormone transporters: functions and clinical implications. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2015, 11:406-17. 10.1038\/nrendo.2015.66","journal-title":"Nat Rev Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI29812","article-title":"Deiodinases: implications of the local control of thyroid hormone action","volume":"116","author":"Bianco AC","year":"2006","unstructured":"Bianco AC, Kim BW. Deiodinases: implications of the local control of thyroid hormone action. J Clin Invest. 2006, 116:2571-9. 10.1172\/JCI29812","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2018-00275","article-title":"Paradigms of dynamic control of thyroid hormone signaling","volume":"40","author":"Bianco AC","year":"2019","unstructured":"Bianco AC, Dumitrescu A, Gereben B, Ribeiro MO, Fonseca TL, Fernandes GW, Bocco BM. Paradigms of dynamic control of thyroid hormone signaling. Endocr Rev. 2019, 40:1000-47. 10.1210\/er.2018-00275","journal-title":"Endocr Rev"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/liv.15759","article-title":"Thyroid hormone receptor alpha modulates fibrogenesis in hepatic stellate cells","volume":"44","author":"Manka P","year":"2024","unstructured":"Manka P, Coombes JD, Sydor S, et al.. Thyroid hormone receptor alpha modulates fibrogenesis in hepatic stellate cells. Liver Int. 2024, 44:125-38. 10.1111\/liv.15759","journal-title":"Liver Int"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2018.18","article-title":"Global epidemiology of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism","volume":"14","author":"Taylor PN","year":"2018","unstructured":"Taylor PN, Albrecht D, Scholz A, Gutierrez-Buey G, Lazarus JH, Dayan CM, Okosieme OE. Global epidemiology of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2018, 14:301-16. 10.1038\/nrendo.2018.18","journal-title":"Nat Rev Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2007.03068.x","article-title":"Association between serum TSH, free T4 and serum liver enzyme activities in a large cohort of unselected outpatients","volume":"68","author":"Targher G","year":"2008","unstructured":"Targher G, Montagnana M, Salvagno G, Moghetti P, Zoppini G, Muggeo M, Lippi G. Association between serum TSH, free T4 and serum liver enzyme activities in a large cohort of unselected outpatients. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2008, 68:481-4. 10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2007.03068.x","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol (Oxf)"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5603\/EP.2015.0036","article-title":"The effect of hypothyroidism occurring in patients with metabolic syndrome","volume":"66","author":"Gierach M","year":"2015","unstructured":"Gierach M, Junik R. The effect of hypothyroidism occurring in patients with metabolic syndrome. Endokrynol Pol. 2015, 66:288-94. 10.5603\/EP.2015.0036","journal-title":"Endokrynol Pol"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/11795514241231533","article-title":"Co-morbid hypothyroidism and liver dysfunction: a review","volume":"17","author":"Yorke E","year":"2024","unstructured":"Yorke E. Co-morbid hypothyroidism and liver dysfunction: a review. Clin Med Insights Endocrinol Diabetes. 2024, 17:11795514241231533. 10.1177\/11795514241231533","journal-title":"Clin Med Insights Endocrinol Diabetes"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/5083746","article-title":"Histopathologic evaluation of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in hypothyroidism-induced rats","volume":"2016","author":"Demir \u015e","year":"2016","unstructured":"Demir \u015e, \u00dcn\u00fcbol M, Aypak S\u00dc, et al.. Histopathologic evaluation of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in hypothyroidism-induced rats. Int J Endocrinol. 2016, 2016:5083746. 10.1155\/2016\/5083746","journal-title":"Int J Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1603825","article-title":"Thyroid hormone therapy for older adults with subclinical hypothyroidism","volume":"376","author":"Stott DJ","year":"2017","unstructured":"Stott DJ, Rodondi N, Kearney PM, et al.. Thyroid hormone therapy for older adults with subclinical hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med. 2017, 376:2534-44. 10.1056\/NEJMoa1603825","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2010\/910636","article-title":"Propylthiouracil-induced acute liver failure: role of liver transplantation","volume":"2010","author":"Carrion AF","year":"2010","unstructured":"Carrion AF, Czul F, Arosemena LR, et al.. Propylthiouracil-induced acute liver failure: role of liver transplantation. Int J Endocrinol. 2010, 2010:910636. 10.1155\/2010\/910636","journal-title":"Int J Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/IJWH.S100987","article-title":"Managing hyperthyroidism in pregnancy: current perspectives","volume":"8","author":"Andersen SL","year":"2016","unstructured":"Andersen SL, Laurberg P. Managing hyperthyroidism in pregnancy: current perspectives. Int J Womens Health. 2016, 8:497-504. 10.2147\/IJWH.S100987","journal-title":"Int J Womens Health"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.22037\/ijpr.2020.112892.14005","article-title":"Antithyroid drugs","volume":"18","author":"Abdi H","year":"2019","unstructured":"Abdi H, Amouzegar A, Azizi F. Antithyroid drugs. Iran J Pharm Res. 2019, 18:1-12. 10.22037\/ijpr.2020.112892.14005","journal-title":"Iran J Pharm Res"},{"key":"ref26","article-title":"Hepatic dysfunction in hyperthyroidism","volume":"7","author":"Khemichian S","year":"2011","unstructured":"Khemichian S, Fong TL. Hepatic dysfunction in hyperthyroidism. Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2011, 7:337-9.","journal-title":"Gastroenterol Hepatol"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra042972","article-title":"Antithyroid drugs","volume":"352","author":"Cooper DS","year":"2005","unstructured":"Cooper DS. Antithyroid drugs. N Engl J Med. 2005, 352:905-17. 10.1056\/NEJMra042972","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2009\/132041","article-title":"Propylthiouracil (PTU) hepatoxicity in children and recommendations for discontinuation of use","volume":"2009","author":"Rivkees SA","year":"2009","unstructured":"Rivkees SA, Mattison DR. Propylthiouracil (PTU) hepatoxicity in children and recommendations for discontinuation of use. Int J Pediatr Endocrinol. 2009, 2009:132041. 10.1155\/2009\/132041","journal-title":"Int J Pediatr Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2005.10.001","article-title":"Non-thyroidal illness syndrome is a manifestation of hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction, and in view of current evidence, should be treated with appropriate replacement therapies","volume":"22","author":"De Groot LJ","year":"2006","unstructured":"De Groot LJ. Non-thyroidal illness syndrome is a manifestation of hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction, and in view of current evidence, should be treated with appropriate replacement therapies. Crit Care Clin. 2006, 22:57-86, vi. 10.1016\/j.ccc.2005.10.001","journal-title":"Crit Care Clin"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhepr.2023.100954","article-title":"Lower free triiodothyronine (fT3) levels in cirrhosis are linked to systemic inflammation, higher risk of acute-on-chronic liver failure, and mortality","volume":"6","author":"Hartl L","year":"2024","unstructured":"Hartl L, Simbrunner B, Jachs M, et al.. Lower free triiodothyronine (fT3) levels in cirrhosis are linked to systemic inflammation, higher risk of acute-on-chronic liver failure, and mortality. JHEP Rep. 2024, 6:100954. 10.1016\/j.jhepr.2023.100954","journal-title":"JHEP Rep"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1677\/JOE-09-0412","article-title":"Mechanisms behind the non-thyroidal illness syndrome: an update","volume":"205","author":"Warner MH","year":"2010","unstructured":"Warner MH, Beckett GJ. Mechanisms behind the non-thyroidal illness syndrome: an update. J Endocrinol. 2010, 205:1-13. 10.1677\/JOE-09-0412","journal-title":"J Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2002-022013","article-title":"Reduced activation and increased inactivation of thyroid hormone in tissues of critically ill patients","volume":"88","author":"Peeters RP","year":"2003","unstructured":"Peeters RP, Wouters PJ, Kaptein E, van Toor H, Visser TJ, Van den Berghe G. Reduced activation and increased inactivation of thyroid hormone in tissues of critically ill patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003, 88:3202-11. 10.1210\/jc.2002-022013","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/dc18-1410","article-title":"Impaired sensitivity to thyroid hormones is associated with diabetes and metabolic syndrome","volume":"42","author":"Laclaustra M","year":"2019","unstructured":"Laclaustra M, Moreno-Franco B, Lou-Bonafonte JM, et al.. Impaired sensitivity to thyroid hormones is associated with diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care. 2019, 42:303-10. 10.2337\/dc18-1410","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2013-4115","article-title":"Endocrine responses to critical illness: novel insights and therapeutic implications","volume":"99","author":"Boonen E","year":"2014","unstructured":"Boonen E, Van den Berghe G. Endocrine responses to critical illness: novel insights and therapeutic implications. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014, 99:1569-82. 10.1210\/jc.2013-4115","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hbpd.2020.05.001","article-title":"Changes in thyroid function in patients with liver failure and their clinical significance: a clinical study of non-thyroidal illness syndrome in patients with liver failure","volume":"19","author":"Feng HL","year":"2020","unstructured":"Feng HL, Li Q, Cao WK, Yang JM. Changes in thyroid function in patients with liver failure and their clinical significance: a clinical study of non-thyroidal illness syndrome in patients with liver failure. Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int. 2020, 19:561-6. 10.1016\/j.hbpd.2020.05.001","journal-title":"Hepatobiliary Pancreat Dis Int"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.20945\/2359-4292-2023-0249","article-title":"Thyroid hormone profile is related to prognosis in acute decompensation of cirrhosis","volume":"68","author":"Nardin G","year":"2024","unstructured":"Nardin G, Colombo BD, Ronsoni MF, et al.. Thyroid hormone profile is related to prognosis in acute decompensation of cirrhosis. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2024, 68:e230249. 10.20945\/2359-4292-2023-0249","journal-title":"Arch Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2025.1748907","article-title":"Association between thyroid dysfunction and prognosis in patients with liver failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"16","author":"Bao S","year":"2025","unstructured":"Bao S, Pan Y, Ruan Y, Hassan HM, Lu H, Chen Q. Association between thyroid dysfunction and prognosis in patients with liver failure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2025, 16:1748907. 10.3389\/fendo.2025.1748907","journal-title":"Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beem.2009.06.004","article-title":"Medications that distort in vitro tests of thyroid function, with particular reference to estimates of serum free thyroxine","volume":"23","author":"Stockigt JR","year":"2009","unstructured":"Stockigt JR, Lim CF. Medications that distort in vitro tests of thyroid function, with particular reference to estimates of serum free thyroxine. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009, 23:753-67. 10.1016\/j.beem.2009.06.004","journal-title":"Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.med.0000433069.09294.e8","article-title":"Nonthyroidal illness syndrome","volume":"20","author":"Farwell AP","year":"2013","unstructured":"Farwell AP. Nonthyroidal illness syndrome. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2013, 20:478-84. 10.1097\/01.med.0000433069.09294.e8","journal-title":"Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/edrv.22.4.0435","article-title":"Plasma membrane transport of thyroid hormones and its role in thyroid hormone metabolism and bioavailability","volume":"22","author":"Hennemann G","year":"2001","unstructured":"Hennemann G, Docter R, Friesema EC, de Jong M, Krenning EP, Visser TJ. Plasma membrane transport of thyroid hormones and its role in thyroid hormone metabolism and bioavailability. Endocr Rev. 2001, 22:451-76. 10.1210\/edrv.22.4.0435","journal-title":"Endocr Rev"},{"key":"ref41","article-title":"The hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis in critical illness","volume":"67","author":"Mebis L","year":"2009","unstructured":"Mebis L, van den Berghe G. The hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis in critical illness. Neth J Med. 2009, 67:332-40.","journal-title":"Neth J Med"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-09-0290","article-title":"Expression of thyroid hormone transporters during critical illness","volume":"161","author":"Mebis L","year":"2009","unstructured":"Mebis L, Paletta D, Debaveye Y, et al.. Expression of thyroid hormone transporters during critical illness. Eur J Endocrinol. 2009, 161:243-50. 10.1530\/EJE-09-0290","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2011.0289","article-title":"Leptin administration restores the fasting-induced increase of hepatic type 3 deiodinase expression in mice","volume":"22","author":"Boelen A","year":"2012","unstructured":"Boelen A, van Beeren M, Vos X, et al.. Leptin administration restores the fasting-induced increase of hepatic type 3 deiodinase expression in mice. Thyroid. 2012, 22:192-9. 10.1089\/thy.2011.0289","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1530\/JOE-14-0533","article-title":"Differential effects of fasting vs food restriction on liver thyroid hormone metabolism in male rats","volume":"224","author":"de Vries EM","year":"2015","unstructured":"de Vries EM, van Beeren HC, Ackermans MT, Kalsbeek A, Fliers E, Boelen A. Differential effects of fasting vs food restriction on liver thyroid hormone metabolism in male rats. J Endocrinol. 2015, 224:25-35. 10.1530\/JOE-14-0533","journal-title":"J Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpendo.00155.2002","article-title":"Sick euthyroid syndrome is associated with decreased TR expression and DNA binding in mouse liver","volume":"284","author":"Beigneux AP","year":"2003","unstructured":"Beigneux AP, Moser AH, Shigenaga JK, Grunfeld C, Feingold KR. Sick euthyroid syndrome is associated with decreased TR expression and DNA binding in mouse liver. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003, 284:E228-36. 10.1152\/ajpendo.00155.2002","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1677\/joe.0.1820315","article-title":"Simultaneous changes in central and peripheral components of the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis in lipopolysaccharide-induced acute illness in mice","volume":"182","author":"Boelen A","year":"2004","unstructured":"Boelen A, Kwakkel J, Thijssen-Timmer DC, Alkemade A, Fliers E, Wiersinga WM. Simultaneous changes in central and peripheral components of the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis in lipopolysaccharide-induced acute illness in mice. J Endocrinol. 2004, 182:315-23. 10.1677\/joe.0.1820315","journal-title":"J Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(89)92930-9","article-title":"Thyroid hormone receptor expression in the \u201csick euthyroid\u201d syndrome","volume":"334","author":"Williams GR","year":"1989","unstructured":"Williams GR, Neuberger JM, Franklyn JA, Sheppard MC. Thyroid hormone receptor expression in the \u201csick euthyroid\u201d syndrome. Lancet. 1989, 334:1477-81. 10.1016\/s0140-6736(89)92930-9","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.81.1.8550778","article-title":"Expression and function of thyroid hormone receptor variants in normal and chronically diseased human liver","volume":"81","author":"Chamba A","year":"1996","unstructured":"Chamba A, Neuberger J, Strain A, Hopkins J, Sheppard MC, Franklyn JA. Expression and function of thyroid hormone receptor variants in normal and chronically diseased human liver. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996, 81:360-7. 10.1210\/jcem.81.1.8550778","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.77.1.8100826","article-title":"The magnitude of the hypercholesterolemia of hypothyroidism is associated with variation in the low density lipoprotein receptor gene","volume":"77","author":"Wiseman SA","year":"1993","unstructured":"Wiseman SA, Powell JT, Humphries SE, Press M. The magnitude of the hypercholesterolemia of hypothyroidism is associated with variation in the low density lipoprotein receptor gene. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1993, 77:108-12. 10.1210\/jcem.77.1.8100826","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.k07e-065","article-title":"Hypothyroidism results in small dense LDL independent of IRS traits and hypertriglyceridemia","volume":"55","author":"Abbas JM","year":"2008","unstructured":"Abbas JM, Chakraborty J, Akanji AO, Doi SA. Hypothyroidism results in small dense LDL independent of IRS traits and hypertriglyceridemia. Endocr J. 2008, 55:381-9. 10.1507\/endocrj.k07e-065","journal-title":"Endocr J"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amsu.2022.103503","article-title":"Adverse effects of long-term Levothyroxine therapy in subclinical hypothyroidism","volume":"76","author":"Ochani S","year":"2022","unstructured":"Ochani S, Siddiqui A, Adnan A. Adverse effects of long-term Levothyroxine therapy in subclinical hypothyroidism. Ann Med Surg (Lond). 2022, 76:103503. 10.1016\/j.amsu.2022.103503","journal-title":"Ann Med Surg (Lond)"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.08-108464","article-title":"Thyroid hormone (T3) and TRbeta agonist GC-1 inhibit\/reverse nonalcoholic fatty liver in rats","volume":"22","author":"Perra A","year":"2008","unstructured":"Perra A, Simbula G, Simbula M, et al.. Thyroid hormone (T3) and TRbeta agonist GC-1 inhibit\/reverse nonalcoholic fatty liver in rats. FASEB J. 2008, 22:2981-9. 10.1096\/fj.08-108464","journal-title":"FASEB J"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0905633","article-title":"Use of the thyroid hormone analogue eprotirome in statin-treated dyslipidemia","volume":"362","author":"Ladenson PW","year":"2010","unstructured":"Ladenson PW, Kristensen JD, Ridgway EC, et al.. Use of the thyroid hormone analogue eprotirome in statin-treated dyslipidemia. N Engl J Med. 2010, 362:906-16. 10.1056\/NEJMoa0905633","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(14)70006-3","article-title":"Eprotirome in patients with familial hypercholesterolaemia (the AKKA trial): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 study","volume":"2","author":"Sjouke B","year":"2014","unstructured":"Sjouke B, Langslet G, Ceska R, et al.. Eprotirome in patients with familial hypercholesterolaemia (the AKKA trial): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2014, 2:455-63. 10.1016\/S2213-8587(14)70006-3","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0702759104","article-title":"Targeting thyroid hormone receptor-beta agonists to the liver reduces cholesterol and triglycerides and improves the therapeutic index","volume":"104","author":"Erion MD","year":"2007","unstructured":"Erion MD, Cable EE, Ito BR, et al.. Targeting thyroid hormone receptor-beta agonists to the liver reduces cholesterol and triglycerides and improves the therapeutic index. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007, 104:15490-5. 10.1073\/pnas.0702759104","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.22572","article-title":"Reduction of hepatic steatosis in rats and mice after treatment with a liver-targeted thyroid hormone receptor agonist","volume":"49","author":"Cable EE","year":"2009","unstructured":"Cable EE, Finn PD, Stebbins JW, et al.. Reduction of hepatic steatosis in rats and mice after treatment with a liver-targeted thyroid hormone receptor agonist. Hepatology. 2009, 49:407-17. 10.1002\/hep.22572","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222313105","article-title":"TG68, a novel thyroid hormone receptor-\u03b2 agonist for the treatment of NAFLD","volume":"22","author":"Caddeo A","year":"2021","unstructured":"Caddeo A, Kowalik MA, Serra M, et al.. TG68, a novel thyroid hormone receptor-\u03b2 agonist for the treatment of NAFLD. Int J Mol Sci. 2021, 22:13105. 10.3390\/ijms222313105","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.2c01669","article-title":"Discovery of highly potent and selective thyroid hormone receptor \u03b2 agonists for the treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis","volume":"66","author":"Hu L","year":"2023","unstructured":"Hu L, Gu Y, Liang J, et al.. Discovery of highly potent and selective thyroid hormone receptor \u03b2 agonists for the treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. J Med Chem. 2023, 66:3284-300. 10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.2c01669","journal-title":"J Med Chem"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2019.0007","article-title":"A liver-specific thyromimetic, VK2809, decreases hepatosteatosis in glycogen storage disease type Ia","volume":"29","author":"Zhou J","year":"2019","unstructured":"Zhou J, Waskowicz LR, Lim A, et al.. A liver-specific thyromimetic, VK2809, decreases hepatosteatosis in glycogen storage disease type Ia. Thyroid. 2019, 29:1158-67. 10.1089\/thy.2019.0007","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)32517-6","article-title":"Resmetirom (MGL-3196) for the treatment of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial","volume":"394","author":"Harrison SA","year":"2019","unstructured":"Harrison SA, Bashir MR, Guy CD, et al.. Resmetirom (MGL-3196) for the treatment of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial. Lancet. 2019, 394:2012-24.","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-023-02603-1","article-title":"Resmetirom for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial","volume":"29","author":"Harrison SA","year":"2023","unstructured":"Harrison SA, Taub R, Neff GW, et al.. Resmetirom for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Nat Med. 2023, 29:2919-28. 10.1038\/s41591-023-02603-1","journal-title":"Nat Med"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24065843","article-title":"Resmetirom ameliorates NASH-model mice by suppressing STAT3 and NF-\u03baB signaling pathways in an RGS5-dependent manner","volume":"24","author":"Wang X","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wang X, Wang L, Geng L, Tanaka N, Ye B. Resmetirom ameliorates NASH-model mice by suppressing STAT3 and NF-\u03baB signaling pathways in an RGS5-dependent manner. Int J Mol Sci. 2023, 24:5843. 10.3390\/ijms24065843","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/db11-0207","article-title":"Nonthyrotoxic prevention of diet-induced insulin resistance by 3,5-diiodo-L-thyronine in rats","volume":"60","author":"de Lange P","year":"2011","unstructured":"de Lange P, Cioffi F, Senese R, et al.. Nonthyrotoxic prevention of diet-induced insulin resistance by 3,5-diiodo-L-thyronine in rats. Diabetes. 2011, 60:2730-9. 10.2337\/db11-0207","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-02205-1","article-title":"Metabolomic analysis shows differential hepatic effects of T(2) and T(3) in rats after short-term feeding with high fat diet","volume":"7","author":"Iannucci LF","year":"2017","unstructured":"Iannucci LF, Cioffi F, Senese R, Goglia F, Lanni A, Yen PM, Sinha RA. Metabolomic analysis shows differential hepatic effects of T(2) and T(3) in rats after short-term feeding with high fat diet. Sci Rep. 2017, 7:2023. 10.1038\/s41598-017-02205-1","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo12070582","article-title":"3,5-T2-an endogenous thyroid hormone metabolite as promising lead substance in anti-steatotic drug development?","volume":"12","author":"Sane R","year":"2022","unstructured":"Sane R, Wirth EK, K\u00f6hrle J. 3,5-T2-an endogenous thyroid hormone metabolite as promising lead substance in anti-steatotic drug development?. Metabolites. 2022, 12:582. 10.3390\/metabo12070582","journal-title":"Metabolites"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2016.09.014","article-title":"Chemical hybridization of glucagon and thyroid hormone optimizes therapeutic impact for metabolic disease","volume":"167","author":"Finan B","year":"2016","unstructured":"Finan B, Clemmensen C, Zhu Z, et al.. Chemical hybridization of glucagon and thyroid hormone optimizes therapeutic impact for metabolic disease. Cell. 2016, 167:843-57.","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgad252","article-title":"Conferring liver selectivity to a thyromimetic using a novel nanoparticle increases therapeutic efficacy in a diet-induced obesity animal model","volume":"2","author":"Wu R","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wu R, Prachyathipsakul T, Zhuang J, et al.. Conferring liver selectivity to a thyromimetic using a novel nanoparticle increases therapeutic efficacy in a diet-induced obesity animal model. PNAS Nexus. 2023, 2:pgad252. 10.1093\/pnasnexus\/pgad252","journal-title":"PNAS Nexus"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2022.01.023","article-title":"Resmetirom (MGL-3196) in patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia","volume":"79","author":"Hovingh GK","year":"2022","unstructured":"Hovingh GK, Klausen IC, Heggen E, et al.. Resmetirom (MGL-3196) in patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2022, 79:1220-2. 10.1016\/j.jacc.2022.01.023","journal-title":"J Am Coll Cardiol"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms232213714","article-title":"Cell-specific transport and thyroid hormone receptor isoform selectivity account for hepatocyte-targeted thyromimetic action of MGL-3196","volume":"23","author":"H\u00f6nes GS","year":"2022","unstructured":"H\u00f6nes GS, Sivakumar RG, Hoppe C, K\u00f6nig J, F\u00fchrer D, Moeller LC. Cell-specific transport and thyroid hormone receptor isoform selectivity account for hepatocyte-targeted thyromimetic action of MGL-3196. Int J Mol Sci. 2022, 23:13714. 10.3390\/ijms232213714","journal-title":"Int J Mol Sci"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0504379102","article-title":"Selective thyroid receptor modulation by GC-1 reduces serum lipids and stimulates steps of reverse cholesterol transport in euthyroid mice","volume":"102","author":"Johansson L","year":"2005","unstructured":"Johansson L, Rudling M, Scanlan TS, et al.. Selective thyroid receptor modulation by GC-1 reduces serum lipids and stimulates steps of reverse cholesterol transport in euthyroid mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005, 102:10297-302. 10.1073\/pnas.0504379102","journal-title":"Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1517\/14728222.2016.1090429","article-title":"Sobetirome: the past, present and questions about the future","volume":"20","author":"Lammel Lindemann J","year":"2016","unstructured":"Lammel Lindemann J, Webb P. Sobetirome: the past, present and questions about the future. Expert Opin Ther Targets. 2016, 20:145-9. 10.1517\/14728222.2016.1090429","journal-title":"Expert Opin Ther Targets"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fonc.2023.1127517","article-title":"Potential use of TG68:\u00a0a novel thyromimetic: for the treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFLD)-associated hepatocarcinogenesis","volume":"13","author":"Caddeo A","year":"2023","unstructured":"Caddeo A, Serra M, Sedda F, et al.. Potential use of TG68:\u00a0a novel thyromimetic: for the treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFLD)-associated hepatocarcinogenesis. Front Oncol. 2023, 13:1127517. 10.3389\/fonc.2023.1127517","journal-title":"Front Oncol"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0240338","article-title":"Regulation of gene transcription by thyroid hormone receptor \u03b2 agonists in clinical development for the treatment of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)","volume":"15","author":"Luong XG","year":"2020","unstructured":"Luong XG, Stevens SK, Jekle A, et al.. Regulation of gene transcription by thyroid hormone receptor \u03b2 agonists in clinical development for the treatment of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). PLoS One. 2020, 15:e0240338. 10.1371\/journal.pone.0240338","journal-title":"PLoS One"}],"container-title":["Cureus"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/483144-thyroid-liver-axis-mechanistic-insights-and-clinical-implications","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]],"date-time":"2026-06-11T07:44:08Z","timestamp":1781163848000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/483144-thyroid-liver-axis-mechanistic-insights-and-clinical-implications"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]]},"references-count":73,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7759\/cureus.110637","relation":{},"ISSN":["2168-8184"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2168-8184","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,11]]}}}