{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,29]],"date-time":"2026-08-29T02:56:05Z","timestamp":1787972165208,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,21]]},"DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.12841","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,21]],"date-time":"2021-01-21T18:55:21Z","timestamp":1611255321000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["Pathophysiology, Evaluation, and Management of Metabolic Alkalosis"],"prefix":"10.7759","author":[{"given":"Mohammad","family":"Tinawi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.07400715","article-title":"Acid-base homeostasis","volume":"10","author":"Lee Hamm L","year":"2015","unstructured":"Lee Hamm L, Nakhoul N, Hering-Smith KS. Acid-base homeostasis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015, 10:2232-2242. 10.2215\/CJN.07400715","journal-title":"Clin J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"key":"ref2","article-title":"Normal acid-base balance","author":"Palmer BF","year":"2018","unstructured":"Palmer BF. Normal acid-base balance. Comprehensive Clinical Nephrology. Feehally J, Floege J, Tonelli M, Johnson R (ed): Elsevier Inc, Philadelphia, PA; 2018. 142-148."},{"key":"ref3","article-title":"Metabolic alkalosis","author":"Segal A","year":"2018","unstructured":"Segal A, Gennari FJ. Metabolic alkalosis. Comprehensive Clinical Nephrology. Feehally J, Floege J, Tonelli M, Johnson R (ed): Elsevier Inc, Philadelphia, PA; 2018. 160-169."},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.98.3.651","article-title":"Acid-base disturbances in acute asthma","volume":"98","author":"Mountain RD","year":"1990","unstructured":"Mountain RD, Heffner JE, Brackett NC, Sahn SA. Acid-base disturbances in acute asthma. Chest. 1990, 98:651-655. 10.1378\/chest.98.3.651","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005792-198005000-00001","article-title":"Simple and mixed acid-base disorders. A practical approach","volume":"59","author":"Narins RG","year":"1980","unstructured":"Narins RG, Emmett M. Simple and mixed acid-base disorders. A practical approach. Medicine. 1980, 59:161-187. 10.1097\/00005792-198005000-00001","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005792-197756010-00002","article-title":"Clinical use of the anion gap","volume":"56","author":"Emmett M","year":"1977","unstructured":"Emmett M, Narins RG. Clinical use of the anion gap. Medicine. 1977, 56:38-54. 10.1097\/00005792-197756010-00002","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM197906213002507","article-title":"Increased anion gap in metabolic alkalosis: the role of plasma-protein equivalency","volume":"300","author":"Madias NE","year":"1979","unstructured":"Madias NE, Ayus JC, Adrogu\u00e9 HJ. Increased anion gap in metabolic alkalosis: the role of plasma-protein equivalency. N Engl J Med. 1979, 300:1421-1423. 10.1056\/NEJM197906213002507","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref8","article-title":"Disorders of acid-base balance","author":"Hamm LL","year":"2020","unstructured":"Hamm LL, DuBose TD. Disorders of acid-base balance. Brenner &amp; Rector\u2019s The Kidney. Yu ASL, Chertow G (ed): Elsevier Inc., Philadelphia, PA; 2020. 496-536."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.16041219","article-title":"Metabolic alkalosis. A brief pathophysiologic review","volume":"15","author":"Emmett M","year":"2020","unstructured":"Emmett M. Metabolic alkalosis. A brief pathophysiologic review. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2020, 15:1848-1856. 10.2215\/CJN.16041219","journal-title":"Clin J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.124.2.490","article-title":"Metabolic alkalosis contributes to acute hypercapnic respiratory failure in adult cystic fibrosis","volume":"124","author":"Holland AE","year":"2003","unstructured":"Holland AE, Wilson JW, Kotsimbos TC, Naughton MT. Metabolic alkalosis contributes to acute hypercapnic respiratory failure in adult cystic fibrosis. Chest. 2003, 124:490-493. 10.1378\/chest.124.2.490","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/nejmra1711860","article-title":"Diagnostic use of base excess in acid-base disorders","volume":"378","author":"Berend K","year":"2018","unstructured":"Berend K. Diagnostic use of base excess in acid-base disorders. N Engl J Med. 2018, 378:1419-1428. 10.1056\/nejmra1711860","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/cc13802","article-title":"Metabolic alkalosis is the most common acid-base disorder in ICU patients","volume":"28","author":"M\u00e6hle K","year":"2014","unstructured":"M\u00e6hle K, Haug B, Flaatten H, Nielsen EW. Metabolic alkalosis is the most common acid-base disorder in ICU patients. Crit Care. 2014, 28:420. 10.1186\/cc13802","journal-title":"Crit Care"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02471407","article-title":"Postoperative metabolic alkalosis following general surgery: Its incidence and possible etiology","volume":"19","author":"Okusawa S","year":"1989","unstructured":"Okusawa S, Aikawa N, Abe O. Postoperative metabolic alkalosis following general surgery: Its incidence and possible etiology. Jpn J Surg. 1989, 19:312-318. 10.1007\/BF02471407","journal-title":"Jpn J Surg"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1097\/00003246-198012000-00005","article-title":"Incidence of metabolic alkalemia in hospitalized patients","volume":"8","author":"Hodgkin JE","year":"1980","unstructured":"Hodgkin JE, Soeprono FF, Chan DM. Incidence of metabolic alkalemia in hospitalized patients. Crit Care Med. 1980, 8:725-728.","journal-title":"Crit Care Med"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archsurg.1972.04180080051009","article-title":"Severe alkalosis in critically ill surgical patients","volume":"105","author":"Wilson RF","year":"1972","unstructured":"Wilson RF, Gibson D, Percinel A, Ali MA, Baker G, LeBlanc LP, Lucas C. Severe alkalosis in critically ill surgical patients. Arch Surg. 1972, 105:193-203. 10.1001\/archsurg.1972.04180080051009","journal-title":"Arch Surg"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007611-198706000-00016","article-title":"Alkalemia-associated morbidity and mortality in medical and surgical patients","volume":"80","author":"Anderson LE","year":"1987","unstructured":"Anderson LE, Henrich WL. Alkalemia-associated morbidity and mortality in medical and surgical patients. South Med J. 1987, 80:729-733. 10.1097\/00007611-198706000-00016","journal-title":"South Med J"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.10391012","article-title":"Proximal tubule function and response to acidosis","volume":"9","author":"Curthoys NP","year":"2014","unstructured":"Curthoys NP, Moe OW. Proximal tubule function and response to acidosis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014, 9:1627-1638. 10.2215\/CJN.10391012","journal-title":"Clin J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2016070720","article-title":"Pendrin\u2014a new target for diuretic therapy?","volume":"27","author":"Wagner CA","year":"2016","unstructured":"Wagner CA. Pendrin\u2014a new target for diuretic therapy?. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2016, 27:3499-3501. 10.1681\/ASN.2016070720","journal-title":"J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/915150","article-title":"Acid-base disorders in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a pathophysiological review","volume":"2012","author":"Bruno CM","year":"2012","unstructured":"Bruno CM, Valenti M. Acid-base disorders in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a pathophysiological review. J Biomed Biotechnol. 2012, 2012:915150. 10.1155\/2012\/915150","journal-title":"J Biomed Biotechnol"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2019050551","article-title":"Aldosterone regulates pendrin and epithelial sodium channel activity through intercalated cell mineralocorticoid receptor-dependent and -independent mechanisms over a wide range in serum potassium","volume":"31","author":"Pham TD","year":"2020","unstructured":"Pham TD, Verlander JW, Wang Y, et al.. Aldosterone regulates pendrin and epithelial sodium channel activity through intercalated cell mineralocorticoid receptor-dependent and -independent mechanisms over a wide range in serum potassium. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2020, 31:483-499. 10.1681\/ASN.2019050551","journal-title":"J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ki.1972.43","article-title":"The generation and maintenance of metabolic alkalosis","volume":"1","author":"Seldin DW","year":"1972","unstructured":"Seldin DW, Rector FC. The generation and maintenance of metabolic alkalosis. Kidney Int. 1972, 1:306-321. 10.1038\/ki.1972.43","journal-title":"Kidney Int"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneph.2009.17","article-title":"Fluid, electrolyte and acid-base disorders associated with antibiotic therapy","volume":"5","author":"Zietse R","year":"2009","unstructured":"Zietse R, Zoutendijk R, Hoorn EJ. Fluid, electrolyte and acid-base disorders associated with antibiotic therapy. Nat Rev Nephrol. 2009, 5:193-202. 10.1038\/nrneph.2009.17","journal-title":"Nat Rev Nephrol"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0197480","article-title":"The effect of chronic progressive-dose sodium bicarbonate ingestion on CrossFit-like performance: a double-blind, randomized cross-over trial","volume":"13","author":"Durkalec-Michalski K","year":"2018","unstructured":"Durkalec-Michalski K, Zawieja EE, Podg\u00f3rski T, Loniewski I, Zawieja BE, Warzybok M, Jeszka J. The effect of chronic progressive-dose sodium bicarbonate ingestion on CrossFit-like performance: a double-blind, randomized cross-over trial. PLoS One. 2018, 13:0197480. 10.1371\/journal.pone.0197480","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12970-015-0087-6","article-title":"Sodium bicarbonate intake improves high-intensity intermittent exercise performance in trained young men","volume":"12","author":"Krustrup P","year":"2015","unstructured":"Krustrup P, Ermidis G, Mohr M. Sodium bicarbonate intake improves high-intensity intermittent exercise performance in trained young men. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015, 12:25. 10.1186\/s12970-015-0087-6","journal-title":"J Int Soc Sports Nutr"},{"key":"ref25","article-title":"Diagnosis of simple and mixed disorders","author":"Emmett M","year":"2002","unstructured":"Emmett M. Diagnosis of simple and mixed disorders. Acid-Base and Electrolyte Disorders A Companion to Brenner &amp; Rector\u2019s The Kidney. DuBose TD, Hamm LL (ed): Elsevier Inc, Philadelphia, PA; 2002. 41-53."},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2011040414","article-title":"Effects of pH on potassium: new explanations for old observations","volume":"22","author":"Aronson PS","year":"2011","unstructured":"Aronson PS, Giebisch G. Effects of pH on potassium: new explanations for old observations. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011, 22:1981-1989. 10.1681\/ASN.2011040414","journal-title":"J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1196-316","article-title":"Mutations of the down-regulated in adenoma (DRA) gene cause congenital chloride diarrhoea","volume":"14","author":"H\u00f6glund P","year":"1996","unstructured":"H\u00f6glund P, Haila S, Socha J, et al.. Mutations of the down-regulated in adenoma (DRA) gene cause congenital chloride diarrhoea. Nat Genet. 1996, 14:316-319. 10.1038\/ng1196-316","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2215\/CJN.09630818","article-title":"Clinical pharmacology in diuretic use","volume":"14","author":"Ellison DH","year":"2019","unstructured":"Ellison DH. Clinical pharmacology in diuretic use. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2019, 14:1248-1257. 10.2215\/CJN.09630818","journal-title":"Clin J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcl.2018.08.010","article-title":"Bartter syndrome and Gitelman syndrome","volume":"66","author":"Fulchiero R","year":"2019","unstructured":"Fulchiero R, Seo-Mayer P. Bartter syndrome and Gitelman syndrome. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2019, 66:121-134. 10.1016\/j.pcl.2018.08.010","journal-title":"Pediatr Clin North Am"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/15412550903341448","article-title":"Post-hypercapnic alkalosis is associated with ventilator dependence and increased ICU stay","volume":"6","author":"Banga A","year":"2009","unstructured":"Banga A, Khilnani GC. Post-hypercapnic alkalosis is associated with ventilator dependence and increased ICU stay. COPD J Chronic Obstr Pulm Dis. 2009, 6:437-440. 10.3109\/15412550903341448","journal-title":"COPD J Chronic Obstr Pulm Dis"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1442-200X.2002.01563.x","article-title":"Metabolic alkalosis with hypoelectrolytemia in infants with cystic fibrosis","volume":"44","author":"Fustik S","year":"2002","unstructured":"Fustik S, Pop-Jordanova N, Slaveska N, Koceva S, Efremov G. Metabolic alkalosis with hypoelectrolytemia in infants with cystic fibrosis. Pediatr Int. 2002, 44:289-292. 10.1046\/j.1442-200X.2002.01563.x","journal-title":"Pediatr Int"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00000441-200503000-00007","article-title":"Acquired Bartter-like syndrome associated with gentamicin administration","volume":"329","author":"Chou CL","year":"2005","unstructured":"Chou CL, Chen YH, Chau T, Lin SH. Acquired Bartter-like syndrome associated with gentamicin administration. Am J Med Sci. 2005, 329:144-149. 10.1097\/00000441-200503000-00007","journal-title":"Am J Med Sci"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.12420","article-title":"Disorders of calcium metabolism: hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia","volume":"13","author":"Tinawi M","year":"2021","unstructured":"Tinawi M. Disorders of calcium metabolism: hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia. Cureus. 2021, 13:e12420. 10.7759\/cureus.12420","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2015-4061","article-title":"The management of primary aldosteronism: case detection, diagnosis, and treatment: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline","volume":"101","author":"Funder JW","year":"2016","unstructured":"Funder JW, Carey RM, Mantero F, et al.. The management of primary aldosteronism: case detection, diagnosis, and treatment: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016, 101:1889-1916. 10.1210\/jc.2015-4061","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpag.2017.04.001","article-title":"Congenital adrenal hyperplasia","volume":"30","author":"Witchel SF","year":"2017","unstructured":"Witchel SF. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol. 2017, 30:520-534. 10.1016\/j.jpag.2017.04.001","journal-title":"J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-11-0101","article-title":"Life-threatening metabolic alkalosis in Pendred syndrome","volume":"165","author":"Kandasamy N","year":"2011","unstructured":"Kandasamy N, Fugazzola L, Evans M, Chatterjee K, Karet F. Life-threatening metabolic alkalosis in Pendred syndrome. Eur J Endocrinol. 2011, 165:167-170. 10.1530\/EJE-11-0101","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0079327","article-title":"Potentiation of the effect of thiazide derivatives by carbonic anhydrase inhibitors: Molecular mechanisms and potential clinical implications","volume":"8","author":"Zahedi K","year":"2013","unstructured":"Zahedi K, Barone S, Xu J, Soleimani M. Potentiation of the effect of thiazide derivatives by carbonic anhydrase inhibitors: Molecular mechanisms and potential clinical implications. PLoS One. 2013, 8:79327. 10.1371\/journal.pone.0079327","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.26502\/acbr.50170088","article-title":"Hypokalemia: a practical approach to diagnosis and treatment","volume":"4","author":"Tinawi M","year":"2020","unstructured":"Tinawi M. Hypokalemia: a practical approach to diagnosis and treatment. Arch Clin Biomed Res. 2020, 4:48-66. 10.26502\/acbr.50170088","journal-title":"Arch Clin Biomed Res"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2016.0019","article-title":"Effect of acetazolamide vs placebo on duration of invasive mechanical ventilation among patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A randomized clinical trial","volume":"315","author":"Faisy C","year":"2016","unstructured":"Faisy C, Meziani F, Planquette B, et al.. Effect of acetazolamide vs placebo on duration of invasive mechanical ventilation among patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2016, 315:480-488. 10.1001\/jama.2016.0019","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2016070780","article-title":"Bicarbonate balance and prescription in ESRD","volume":"28","author":"Abramowitz MK","year":"2017","unstructured":"Abramowitz MK. Bicarbonate balance and prescription in ESRD. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017, 28:726-734. 10.1681\/ASN.2016070780","journal-title":"J Am Soc Nephrol"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/j.ajkd.2013.03.035","article-title":"Association of dialysate bicarbonate concentration with mortality in the Dialysis Outcomes and Practice Patterns Study (DOPPS)","volume":"62","author":"Tentori F","year":"2013","unstructured":"Tentori F, Karaboyas A, Robinson BM, et al.. Association of dialysate bicarbonate concentration with mortality in the Dialysis Outcomes and Practice Patterns Study (DOPPS). Am J Kidney Dis. 2013, 62:738-746. 10.1053\/j.ajkd.2013.03.035","journal-title":"Am J Kidney Dis"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00003246-198903000-00006","article-title":"Hydrochloric acid infusion for treatment of metabolic alkalosis associated with respiratory acidosis","volume":"17","author":"Brimioulle S","year":"1989","unstructured":"Brimioulle S, Berre J, Dufaye P, Vincent JL, Degaute JP, Kahn RJ. Hydrochloric acid infusion for treatment of metabolic alkalosis associated with respiratory acidosis. Crit Care Med. 1989, 17:232-236. 10.1097\/00003246-198903000-00006","journal-title":"Crit Care Med"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/nejm200208013470520","article-title":"Use of a proton-pump inhibitor for metabolic disturbances associated with anorexia nervosa","volume":"347","author":"Eiro M","year":"2002","unstructured":"Eiro M, Katoh T, Watanabe T. Use of a proton-pump inhibitor for metabolic disturbances associated with anorexia nervosa. N Engl J Med. 2002, 347:373-374. 10.1056\/nejm200208013470520","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1681\/ASN.2014030293","article-title":"Indomethacin, amiloride, or eplerenone for treating hypokalemia in Gitelman syndrome","volume":"26","author":"Blanchard A","year":"2015","unstructured":"Blanchard A, Vargas-Poussou R, Vallet M, et al.. Indomethacin, amiloride, or eplerenone for treating hypokalemia in Gitelman syndrome. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015, 26:468-475. 10.1681\/ASN.2014030293","journal-title":"J Am Soc Nephrol"}],"container-title":["Cureus"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/50487-pathophysiology-evaluation-and-management-of-metabolic-alkalosis","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,9]],"date-time":"2024-02-09T19:33:16Z","timestamp":1707507196000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/50487-pathophysiology-evaluation-and-management-of-metabolic-alkalosis"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,21]]},"references-count":44,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7759\/cureus.12841","relation":{},"ISSN":["2168-8184"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2168-8184","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,1,21]]}}}