{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,11]],"date-time":"2026-01-11T06:52:04Z","timestamp":1768114324101,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,5]]},"DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.33393","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,5]],"date-time":"2023-01-05T15:24:45Z","timestamp":1672932285000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["A Retrospective Analysis of Guanfacine for the Pharmacological Management of Delirium"],"prefix":"10.7759","author":[{"given":"Shixie","family":"Jiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Hernandez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Heather","family":"Burke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Benjamin","family":"Spurling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Czuma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rojan","family":"Varghese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alexis","family":"Cohen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kimberly","family":"Hartney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gregory","family":"Sullivan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"F. Andrew","family":"Kozel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jose R","family":"Maldonado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2017.03.013","article-title":"Acute brain failure: pathophysiology, diagnosis, management, and sequelae of delirium","volume":"33","author":"Maldonado JR","year":"2017","unstructured":"Maldonado JR. Acute brain failure: pathophysiology, diagnosis, management, and sequelae of delirium. Crit Care Clin. 2017, 33:461-519. 10.1016\/j.ccc.2017.03.013","journal-title":"Crit Care Clin"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2011.03671.x","article-title":"The importance of delirium: economic and societal costs","volume":"59","author":"Leslie DL","year":"2011","unstructured":"Leslie DL, Inouye SK. The importance of delirium: economic and societal costs. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2011, 59:S241-3. 10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2011.03671.x","journal-title":"J Am Geriatr Soc"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s001340101017","article-title":"Delirium in an intensive care unit: a study of risk factors","volume":"27","author":"Dubois MJ","year":"2001","unstructured":"Dubois MJ, Bergeron N, Dumont M, Dial S, Skrobik Y. Delirium in an intensive care unit: a study of risk factors. Intensive Care Med. 2001, 27:1297-304. 10.1007\/s001340101017","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)60688-1","article-title":"Delirium in elderly people","volume":"383","author":"Inouye SK","year":"2014","unstructured":"Inouye SK, Westendorp RG, Saczynski JS. Delirium in elderly people. Lancet. 2014, 383:911-22. 10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)60688-1","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0000000000002640","article-title":"Worldwide Survey of the \"Assessing Pain, Both Spontaneous Awakening and Breathing Trials, Choice of Drugs, Delirium Monitoring\/Management, Early Exercise\/Mobility, and Family Empowerment\" (ABCDEF) Bundle","volume":"45","author":"Morandi A","year":"2017","unstructured":"Morandi A, Piva S, Ely EW, et al.. Worldwide Survey of the \"Assessing Pain, Both Spontaneous Awakening and Breathing Trials, Choice of Drugs, Delirium Monitoring\/Management, Early Exercise\/Mobility, and Family Empowerment\" (ABCDEF) Bundle. Crit Care Med. 2017, 45:e1111-22. 10.1097\/CCM.0000000000002640","journal-title":"Crit Care Med"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jhm.2596","article-title":"Antipsychotic medication utilization in nonpsychiatric hospitalizations","volume":"11","author":"Herzig SJ","year":"2016","unstructured":"Herzig SJ, Rothberg MB, Guess JR, Gurwitz JH, Marcantonio ER. Antipsychotic medication utilization in nonpsychiatric hospitalizations. J Hosp Med. 2016, 11:543-9. 10.1002\/jhm.2596","journal-title":"J Hosp Med"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004714-199104000-00021","article-title":"High-dose intravenous haloperidol for agitated delirium in a cardiac patient on intra-aortic balloon pump","volume":"11","author":"Sanders KM","year":"1991","unstructured":"Sanders KM, Murray GB, Cassem NH. High-dose intravenous haloperidol for agitated delirium in a cardiac patient on intra-aortic balloon pump. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1991, 11:146-7. 10.1097\/00004714-199104000-00021","journal-title":"J Clin Psychopharmacol"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0033-3182(95)71710-8","article-title":"High-dose intravenous haloperidol for agitated delirium following lung transplantation","volume":"36","author":"Levenson JL","year":"1995","unstructured":"Levenson JL. High-dose intravenous haloperidol for agitated delirium following lung transplantation. Psychosomatics. 1995, 36:66-68. 10.1016\/s0033-3182(95)71710-8","journal-title":"Psychosomatics"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00999391","article-title":"Dopamine and serotonin in rat striatum during in vivo hypoxic-hypoxia","volume":"4","author":"Broderick PA","year":"1989","unstructured":"Broderick PA, Gibson GE. Dopamine and serotonin in rat striatum during in vivo hypoxic-hypoxia. Metab Brain Dis. 1989, 4:143-53. 10.1007\/BF00999391","journal-title":"Metab Brain Dis"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/s0033291700019759","article-title":"Major psychosis and dopamine: controversial features and some suggestions","volume":"14","author":"Miller R","year":"1984","unstructured":"Miller R. Major psychosis and dopamine: controversial features and some suggestions. Psychol Med. 1984, 14:779-89. 10.1017\/s0033291700019759","journal-title":"Psychol Med"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.5907.549","article-title":"Dopamine and serotonin metabolism in hepatic encephalopathy","volume":"1","author":"Knell AJ","year":"1974","unstructured":"Knell AJ, Davidson AR, Williams R, Kantamaneni BD, Curzon G. Dopamine and serotonin metabolism in hepatic encephalopathy. Br Med J. 1974, 1:549-51. 10.1136\/bmj.1.5907.549","journal-title":"Br Med J"},{"key":"ref12","article-title":"Is there a final common neural pathway in delirium? focus on acetylcholine and dopamine","volume":"5","author":"Trzepacz PT","year":"2000","unstructured":"Trzepacz PT. Is there a final common neural pathway in delirium? focus on acetylcholine and dopamine. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry. 2000, 5:132-48.","journal-title":"Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0033-3182(92)71945-8","article-title":"An animal model for delirium","volume":"33","author":"Trzepacz PT","year":"1992","unstructured":"Trzepacz PT, Leavitt M, Ciongoli K. An animal model for delirium. Psychosomatics. 1992, 33:404-415. 10.1016\/S0033-3182(92)71945-8","journal-title":"Psychosomatics"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/gps.4823","article-title":"Delirium pathophysiology: an updated hypothesis of the etiology of acute brain failure","volume":"33","author":"Maldonado JR","year":"2018","unstructured":"Maldonado JR. Delirium pathophysiology: an updated hypothesis of the etiology of acute brain failure. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2018, 33:1428-57. 10.1002\/gps.4823","journal-title":"Int J Geriatr Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD005594.pub3","article-title":"Antipsychotics for treatment of delirium in hospitalised non-ICU patients","volume":"6","author":"Burry L","year":"2018","unstructured":"Burry L, Mehta S, Perreault MM, et al.. Antipsychotics for treatment of delirium in hospitalised non-ICU patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018, 6:CD005594. 10.1002\/14651858.CD005594.pub3","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2020.03.012","article-title":"Comparative efficacy and acceptability of pharmacological interventions for the treatment and prevention of delirium: a systematic review and network meta-analysis","volume":"125","author":"Kim MS","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kim MS, Rhim HC, Park A, et al.. Comparative efficacy and acceptability of pharmacological interventions for the treatment and prevention of delirium: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. J Psychiatr Res. 2020, 125:164-76. 10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2020.03.012","journal-title":"J Psychiatr Res"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.psy.50.3.206","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine and the reduction of postoperative delirium after cardiac surgery","volume":"50","author":"Maldonado JR","year":"2009","unstructured":"Maldonado JR, Wysong A, van der Starre PJ, Block T, Miller C, Reitz BA. Dexmedetomidine and the reduction of postoperative delirium after cardiac surgery. Psychosomatics. 2009, 50:206-17. 10.1176\/appi.psy.50.3.206","journal-title":"Psychosomatics"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2021.784356","article-title":"The locus coeruleus noradrenaline system in delirium","volume":"13","author":"Hansen N","year":"2021","unstructured":"Hansen N, Rediske AI. The locus coeruleus noradrenaline system in delirium. Front Aging Neurosci. 2021, 13:784356. 10.3389\/fnagi.2021.784356","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2011.08.012","article-title":"Inhibitory effect of glutamate release from rat cerebrocortical nerve terminals by \u03b12 adrenoceptor agonist dexmedetomidine","volume":"670","author":"Chiu KM","year":"2011","unstructured":"Chiu KM, Lin TY, Lu CW, Wang SJ. Inhibitory effect of glutamate release from rat cerebrocortical nerve terminals by \u03b12 adrenoceptor agonist dexmedetomidine. Eur J Pharmacol. 2011, 670:137-47. 10.1016\/j.ejphar.2011.08.012","journal-title":"Eur J Pharmacol"},{"key":"ref20","article-title":"alpha2A-adrenoceptor stimulation reduces capsaicin-induced glutamate release from spinal cord synaptosomes","volume":"299","author":"Li X","year":"2001","unstructured":"Li X, Eisenach JC. alpha2A-adrenoceptor stimulation reduces capsaicin-induced glutamate release from spinal cord synaptosomes. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2001, 299:939-44.","journal-title":"J Pharmacol Exp Ther"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0000000000000361","article-title":"Effects of dexmedetomidine on sleep quality in critically ill patients: a pilot study","volume":"121","author":"Alexopoulou C","year":"2014","unstructured":"Alexopoulou C, Kondili E, Diamantaki E, Psarologakis C, Kokkini S, Bolaki M, Georgopoulos D. Effects of dexmedetomidine on sleep quality in critically ill patients: a pilot study. Anesthesiology. 2014, 121:801-7. 10.1097\/ALN.0000000000000361","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/87.5.684","article-title":"Comparison between dexmedetomidine and propofol for sedation in the intensive care unit: patient and clinician perceptions","volume":"87","author":"Venn RM","year":"2001","unstructured":"Venn RM, Grounds RM. Comparison between dexmedetomidine and propofol for sedation in the intensive care unit: patient and clinician perceptions. Br J Anaesth. 2001, 87:684-90. 10.1093\/bja\/87.5.684","journal-title":"Br J Anaesth"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)30580-3","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine for prevention of delirium in elderly patients after non-cardiac surgery: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"388","author":"Su X","year":"2016","unstructured":"Su X, Meng ZT, Wu XH, et al.. Dexmedetomidine for prevention of delirium in elderly patients after non-cardiac surgery: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2016, 388:1893-1902. 10.1016\/S0140-6736(16)30580-3","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30631-0","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine for reduction of atrial fibrillation and delirium after cardiac surgery (DECADE): a randomised placebo-controlled trial","volume":"396","author":"Turan A","year":"2020","unstructured":"Turan A, Duncan A, Leung S, et al.. Dexmedetomidine for reduction of atrial fibrillation and delirium after cardiac surgery (DECADE): a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2020, 396:177-185. 10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30631-0","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD010269.pub2","article-title":"Alpha-2 agonists for long-term sedation during mechanical ventilation in critically ill patients","volume":"1","author":"Chen K","year":"2015","unstructured":"Chen K, Lu Z, Xin YC, Cai Y, Chen Y, Pan SM. Alpha-2 agonists for long-term sedation during mechanical ventilation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015, 1:CD010269. 10.1002\/14651858.CD010269.pub2","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"key":"ref26","article-title":"Clonidine and guanfacine--comparison of their effects on haemodynamics in hypertension","volume":"67","author":"Seedat YK","year":"1985","unstructured":"Seedat YK. Clonidine and guanfacine--comparison of their effects on haemodynamics in hypertension. S Afr Med J. 1985, 67:557-9.","journal-title":"S Afr Med J"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.08-11-04287.1988","article-title":"The alpha-2 adrenergic agonist guanfacine improves memory in aged monkeys without sedative or hypotensive side effects: evidence for alpha-2 receptor subtypes","volume":"8","author":"Arnsten AF","year":"1988","unstructured":"Arnsten AF, Cai JX, Goldman-Rakic PS. The alpha-2 adrenergic agonist guanfacine improves memory in aged monkeys without sedative or hypotensive side effects: evidence for alpha-2 receptor subtypes. J Neurosci. 1988, 8:4287-98. 10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.08-11-04287.1988","journal-title":"J Neurosci"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08998280.2001.11927725","article-title":"Dexmedetomidine: a novel sedative-analgesic agent","volume":"14","author":"Gertler R","year":"2001","unstructured":"Gertler R, Brown HC, Mitchell DH, Silvius EN. Dexmedetomidine: a novel sedative-analgesic agent. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 2001, 14:13-21. 10.1080\/08998280.2001.11927725","journal-title":"Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent)"},{"key":"ref29","article-title":"Role of imidazole receptors in the vasodepressor response to clonidine analogs in the rostral ventrolateral medulla","volume":"253","author":"Ernsberger P","year":"1990","unstructured":"Ernsberger P, Giuliano R, Willette RN, Reis DJ. Role of imidazole receptors in the vasodepressor response to clonidine analogs in the rostral ventrolateral medulla. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1990, 253:408-18.","journal-title":"J Pharmacol Exp Ther"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psym.2020.10.003","article-title":"Guanfacine for hyperactive delirium: a case series","volume":"62","author":"Jiang S","year":"2021","unstructured":"Jiang S, Czuma R, Cohen-Oram A, Hartney K, Stern TA. Guanfacine for hyperactive delirium: a case series. J Acad Consult Liaison Psychiatry. 2021, 62:83-8. 10.1016\/j.psym.2020.10.003","journal-title":"J Acad Consult Liaison Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaclp.2022.10.246","article-title":"A retrospective analysis of guanfacine for the pharmacological management of delirium","volume":"63","author":"Jiang S","year":"2022","unstructured":"Jiang S, Hernandez M, Burke H, et al.. A retrospective analysis of guanfacine for the pharmacological management of delirium\r\n.  Acad Consult Liaison Psychiatry. 2022, 63:S231. 10.1016\/j.jaclp.2022.10.246","journal-title":"Acad Consult Liaison Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.20050","article-title":"The DSM-5: classification and criteria changes","volume":"12","author":"Regier DA","year":"2013","unstructured":"Regier DA, Kuhl EA, Kupfer DJ. The DSM-5: classification and criteria changes. World Psychiatry. 2013, 12:92-8. 10.1002\/wps.20050","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.148.4.454","article-title":"An empirical study of diagnostic criteria for delirium","volume":"148","author":"Liptzin B","year":"1991","unstructured":"Liptzin B, Levkoff SE, Cleary PD, Pilgrim DM, Reilly CH, Albert M, Wetle TT. An empirical study of diagnostic criteria for delirium. Am J Psychiatry. 1991, 148:454-7. 10.1176\/ajp.148.4.454","journal-title":"Am J Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref34","unstructured":"International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-10-CM). (1999). Accessed. March 7, 2022: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/nchs\/icd\/icd-10-cm.htm."},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0954-6820.1920.tb18266.x","article-title":"Die Systolendauer im Elektrokardiogramm bei normalen Menschen und bei Herzkranken [German]","volume":"53","author":"Fridericia LS","year":"1920","unstructured":"Fridericia LS. Die Systolendauer im Elektrokardiogramm bei normalen Menschen und bei Herzkranken [German]. Acta Medica Scandinavica. 1920, 53:469-486. 10.1111\/j.0954-6820.1920.tb18266.x","journal-title":"Acta Medica Scandinavica"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apmr.2010.01.002","article-title":"Early physical medicine and rehabilitation for patients with acute respiratory failure: a quality improvement project","volume":"91","author":"Needham DM","year":"2010","unstructured":"Needham DM, Korupolu R, Zanni JM, et al.. Early physical medicine and rehabilitation for patients with acute respiratory failure: a quality improvement project. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2010, 91:536-42. 10.1016\/j.apmr.2010.01.002","journal-title":"Arch Phys Med Rehabil"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)60658-9","article-title":"Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: a randomised controlled trial","volume":"373","author":"Schweickert WD","year":"2009","unstructured":"Schweickert WD, Pohlman MC, Pohlman AS, et al.. Early physical and occupational therapy in mechanically ventilated, critically ill patients: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2009, 373:1874-1882. 10.1016\/S0140-6736(09)60658-9","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijnurstu.2016.11.018","article-title":"The impact of nUrsiNg DEliRium Preventive INnterventions in the Intensive Care Unit (UNDERPIN-ICU): a study protocol for a multi-centre, stepped wedge randomized controlled trial","volume":"68","author":"Wassenaar A","year":"2017","unstructured":"Wassenaar A, Rood P, Schoonhoven L, Teerenstra S, Zegers M, Pickkers P, van den Boogaard M. The impact of nUrsiNg DEliRium Preventive INnterventions in the Intensive Care Unit (UNDERPIN-ICU): a study protocol for a multi-centre, stepped wedge randomized controlled trial. Int J Nurs Stud. 2017, 68:1-8. 10.1016\/j.ijnurstu.2016.11.018","journal-title":"Int J Nurs Stud"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00007691-198603000-00010","article-title":"Basic pharmacokinetics","volume":"8","author":"Levy RH","year":"1986","unstructured":"Levy RH, Bauer LA. Basic pharmacokinetics. Ther Drug Monit. 1986, 8:47-58. 10.1097\/00007691-198603000-00010","journal-title":"Ther Drug Monit"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2165\/00003495-198631040-00003","article-title":"Guanfacine. a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of hypertension","volume":"31","author":"Sorkin EM","year":"1986","unstructured":"Sorkin EM, Heel RC. Guanfacine. a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties, and therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of hypertension. Drugs. 1986, 31:301-36. 10.2165\/00003495-198631040-00003","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201912-2503OC","article-title":"New opioid use after invasive mechanical ventilation and hospital discharge","volume":"202","author":"Wunsch H","year":"2020","unstructured":"Wunsch H, Hill AD, Fu L, et al.. New opioid use after invasive mechanical ventilation and hospital discharge. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020, 202:568-75. 10.1164\/rccm.201912-2503OC","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202005-1815ED","article-title":"Insights into critical care and post-ICU opiate administration","volume":"202","author":"Skrobik Y","year":"2020","unstructured":"Skrobik Y. Insights into critical care and post-ICU opiate administration. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2020, 202:484-6. 10.1164\/rccm.202005-1815ED","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1213\/01.ane.0000198602.29716.53","article-title":"The role of postoperative analgesia in delirium and cognitive decline in elderly patients: a systematic review","volume":"102","author":"Fong HK","year":"2006","unstructured":"Fong HK, Sands LP, Leung JM. The role of postoperative analgesia in delirium and cognitive decline in elderly patients: a systematic review. Anesth Analg. 2006, 102:1255-66. 10.1213\/01.ane.0000198602.29716.53","journal-title":"Anesth Analg"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202010-3794OC","article-title":"Opioid use increases the risk of delirium in critically ill adults independently of pain","volume":"204","author":"Duprey MS","year":"2021","unstructured":"Duprey MS, Dijkstra-Kersten SM, Zaal IJ, et al.. Opioid use increases the risk of delirium in critically ill adults independently of pain. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2021, 204:566-72. 10.1164\/rccm.202010-3794OC","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccc.2006.02.010","article-title":"Sedative and analgesic medications: risk factors for delirium and sleep disturbances in the critically ill","volume":"22","author":"Pandharipande P","year":"2006","unstructured":"Pandharipande P, Ely EW. Sedative and analgesic medications: risk factors for delirium and sleep disturbances in the critically ill. Crit Care Clin. 2006, 22:313-27, vii. 10.1016\/j.ccc.2006.02.010","journal-title":"Crit Care Clin"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/CCM.0b013e318192fcf9","article-title":"Benzodiazepine and opioid use and the duration of intensive care unit delirium in an older population","volume":"37","author":"Pisani MA","year":"2009","unstructured":"Pisani MA, Murphy TE, Araujo KL, Slattum P, Van Ness PH, Inouye SK. Benzodiazepine and opioid use and the duration of intensive care unit delirium in an older population. Crit Care Med. 2009, 37:177-83. 10.1097\/CCM.0b013e318192fcf9","journal-title":"Crit Care Med"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2016.00407","article-title":"The opioid-sparing effect of perioperative dexmedetomidine plus sufentanil infusion during neurosurgery: a retrospective study","volume":"7","author":"Su S","year":"2016","unstructured":"Su S, Ren C, Zhang H, Liu Z, Zhang Z. The opioid-sparing effect of perioperative dexmedetomidine plus sufentanil infusion during neurosurgery: a retrospective study. Front Pharmacol. 2016, 7:407. 10.3389\/fphar.2016.00407","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2017.00940","article-title":"The opioid-sparing effect of perioperative dexmedetomidine combined with oxycodone infusion during open hepatectomy: a randomized controlled trial","volume":"8","author":"Zhang B","year":"2017","unstructured":"Zhang B, Wang G, Liu X, Wang TL, Chi P. The opioid-sparing effect of perioperative dexmedetomidine combined with oxycodone infusion during open hepatectomy: a randomized controlled trial. Front Pharmacol. 2017, 8:940. 10.3389\/fphar.2017.00940","journal-title":"Front Pharmacol"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.2003.02724.x","article-title":"Different alpha(2) adrenoceptor subtypes control noradrenaline release and cell firing in the locus coeruleus of wildtype and monoamine oxidase-a knockout mice","volume":"18","author":"Owesson CA","year":"2003","unstructured":"Owesson CA, Seif I, McLaughlin DP, Stamford JA. Different alpha(2) adrenoceptor subtypes control noradrenaline release and cell firing in the locus coeruleus of wildtype and monoamine oxidase-a knockout mice. Eur J Neurosci. 2003, 18:34-42. 10.1046\/j.1460-9568.2003.02724.x","journal-title":"Eur J Neurosci"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00000542-200008000-00016","article-title":"The effects of increasing plasma concentrations of dexmedetomidine in humans","volume":"93","author":"Ebert TJ","year":"2000","unstructured":"Ebert TJ, Hall JE, Barney JA, Uhrich TD, Colinco MD. The effects of increasing plasma concentrations of dexmedetomidine in humans. Anesthesiology. 2000, 93:382-94. 10.1097\/00000542-200008000-00016","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/anec.12202","article-title":"Use of ECG restitution (beat-to-beat QT-TQ interval analysis) to assess arrhythmogenic risk of QTc prolongation with guanfacine","volume":"19","author":"Fossa AA","year":"2014","unstructured":"Fossa AA, Zhou M, Robinson A, Purkayastha J, Martin P. Use of ECG restitution (beat-to-beat QT-TQ interval analysis) to assess arrhythmogenic risk of QTc prolongation with guanfacine. Ann Noninvasive Electrocardiol. 2014, 19:582-94. 10.1111\/anec.12202","journal-title":"Ann Noninvasive Electrocardiol"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201710-1995OC","article-title":"Low-dose nocturnal dexmedetomidine prevents ICU delirium. a randomized, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"197","author":"Skrobik Y","year":"2018","unstructured":"Skrobik Y, Duprey MS, Hill NS, Devlin JW. Low-dose nocturnal dexmedetomidine prevents ICU delirium. a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2018, 197:1147-56. 10.1164\/rccm.201710-1995OC","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"}],"container-title":["Cureus"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/130831-a-retrospective-analysis-of-guanfacine-for-the-pharmacological-management-of-delirium","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,9]],"date-time":"2024-02-09T19:53:51Z","timestamp":1707508431000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/130831-a-retrospective-analysis-of-guanfacine-for-the-pharmacological-management-of-delirium"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,5]]},"references-count":52,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7759\/cureus.33393","relation":{},"ISSN":["2168-8184"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2168-8184","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,5]]}}}