{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T22:00:50Z","timestamp":1790805650622,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,30]]},"DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.46241","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,30]],"date-time":"2023-09-30T03:19:28Z","timestamp":1696043968000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":38,"title":["Epidemiology, Types, Causes, Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Hypothyroidism"],"prefix":"10.7759","author":[{"given":"Udit M","family":"Zamwar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Komal N","family":"Muneshwar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(11)60276-6","article-title":"Subclinical thyroid disease","volume":"379","author":"Cooper DS","year":"2012","unstructured":"Cooper DS, Biondi B. Subclinical thyroid disease. Lancet. 2012, 379:1142-54. 10.1016\/S0140-6736(11)60276-6","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nrendo.2016.100","article-title":"Subclinical hypothyroidism in childhood - current knowledge and open issues","volume":"12","author":"Salerno M","year":"2016","unstructured":"Salerno M, Capalbo D, Cerbone M, De Luca F. Subclinical hypothyroidism in childhood - current knowledge and open issues. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2016, 12:734-46. 10.1038\/nrendo.2016.100","journal-title":"Nat Rev Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-8587(13)70109-8","article-title":"Hypothyroidism in pregnancy","volume":"1","author":"Teng W","year":"2013","unstructured":"Teng W, Shan Z, Patil-Sisodia K, Cooper DS. Hypothyroidism in pregnancy. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2013, 1:228-37. 10.1016\/S2213-8587(13)70109-8","journal-title":"Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-13-0459","article-title":"Changes in the prevalence of hypothyroidism: the HUNT Study in Norway","volume":"169","author":"Asvold BO","year":"2013","unstructured":"Asvold BO, Vatten LJ, Bj\u00f8ro T. Changes in the prevalence of hypothyroidism: the HUNT Study in Norway. Eur J Endocrinol. 2013, 169:613-20. 10.1530\/EJE-13-0459","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2006.0235","article-title":"Serum TSH and total T4 in the United States population and their association with participant characteristics: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 1999-2002)","volume":"17","author":"Aoki Y","year":"2007","unstructured":"Aoki Y, Belin RM, Clickner R, Jeffries R, Phillips L, Mahaffey KR. Serum TSH and total T4 in the United States population and their association with participant characteristics: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 1999-2002). Thyroid. 2007, 17:1211-23. 10.1089\/thy.2006.0235","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.160.4.526","article-title":"The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study","volume":"160","author":"Canaris GJ","year":"2000","unstructured":"Canaris GJ, Manowitz NR, Mayor G, Ridgway EC. The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study. Arch Intern Med. 2000, 160:526-34. 10.1001\/archinte.160.4.526","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2013-2409","article-title":"The incidence and prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in Europe: a meta-analysis","volume":"99","author":"Garmendia Madariaga A","year":"2014","unstructured":"Garmendia Madariaga A, Santos Palacios S, Guill\u00e9n-Grima F, Galofr\u00e9 JC. The incidence and prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in Europe: a meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014, 99:923-31. 10.1210\/jc.2013-2409","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.87.2.8182","article-title":"Serum TSH, T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III)","volume":"87","author":"Hollowell JG","year":"2002","unstructured":"Hollowell JG, Staehling NW, Flanders WD, Hannon WH, Gunter EW, Spencer CA, Braverman LE. Serum TSH, T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002, 87:489-99. 10.1210\/jcem.87.2.8182","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beem.2009.08.013","article-title":"Iodine intake as a determinant of thyroid disorders in populations","volume":"24","author":"Laurberg P","year":"2010","unstructured":"Laurberg P, Cerqueira C, Ovesen L, et al.. Iodine intake as a determinant of thyroid disorders in populations. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010, 24:13-27. 10.1016\/j.beem.2009.08.013","journal-title":"Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa054022","article-title":"Effect of iodine intake on thyroid diseases in China","volume":"354","author":"Teng W","year":"2006","unstructured":"Teng W, Shan Z, Teng X, et al.. Effect of iodine intake on thyroid diseases in China. N Engl J Med. 2006, 354:2783-93. 10.1056\/NEJMoa054022","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2007.02816.x","article-title":"Low prevalence of hypothyroidism among Black and Mulatto people in a population-based study of Brazilian women","volume":"66","author":"Sichieri R","year":"2007","unstructured":"Sichieri R, Baima J, Marante T, de Vasconcellos MT, Moura AS, Vaisman M. Low prevalence of hypothyroidism among Black and Mulatto people in a population-based study of Brazilian women. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2007, 66:803-7. 10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2007.02816.x","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol (Oxf)"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2013.285606","article-title":"Variation in rates of autoimmune thyroid disease by race\/ethnicity in US military personnel","volume":"311","author":"McLeod DS","year":"2014","unstructured":"McLeod DS, Caturegli P, Cooper DS, Matos PG, Hutfless S. Variation in rates of autoimmune thyroid disease by race\/ethnicity in US military personnel. JAMA. 2014, 311:1563-5. 10.1001\/jama.2013.285606","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-12-0356","article-title":"Moderate alcohol consumption may protect against overt autoimmune hypothyroidism: a population-based case-control study","volume":"167","author":"Carl\u00e9 A","year":"2012","unstructured":"Carl\u00e9 A, Pedersen IB, Knudsen N, et al.. Moderate alcohol consumption may protect against overt autoimmune hypothyroidism: a population-based case-control study. Eur J Endocrinol. 2012, 167:483-90. 10.1530\/EJE-12-0356","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.167.13.1428","article-title":"Tobacco smoking and thyroid function: a population-based study","volume":"167","author":"Asvold BO","year":"2007","unstructured":"Asvold BO, Bj\u00f8ro T, Nilsen TI, Vatten LJ. Tobacco smoking and thyroid function: a population-based study. Arch Intern Med. 2007, 167:1428-32. 10.1001\/archinte.167.13.1428","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2003-031641","article-title":"Major genetic influence on the regulation of the pituitary-thyroid axis: a study of healthy Danish twins","volume":"89","author":"Hansen PS","year":"2004","unstructured":"Hansen PS, Brix TH, S\u00f8rensen TI, Kyvik KO, Heged\u00fcs L. Major genetic influence on the regulation of the pituitary-thyroid axis: a study of healthy Danish twins. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004, 89:1181-7. 10.1210\/jc.2003-031641","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2007.03079.x","article-title":"Heritability of serum TSH, free T4 and free T3 concentrations: a study of a large UK twin cohort","volume":"68","author":"Panicker V","year":"2008","unstructured":"Panicker V, Wilson SG, Spector TD, et al.. Heritability of serum TSH, free T4 and free T3 concentrations: a study of a large UK twin cohort. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2008, 68:652-9. 10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2007.03079.x","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol (Oxf)"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1003266","article-title":"A meta-analysis of thyroid-related traits reveals novel loci and gender-specific differences in the regulation of thyroid function","volume":"9","author":"Porcu E","year":"2013","unstructured":"Porcu E, Medici M, Pistis G, et al.. A meta-analysis of thyroid-related traits reveals novel loci and gender-specific differences in the regulation of thyroid function. PLoS Genet. 2013, 9:e1003266. 10.1371\/journal.pgen.1003266","journal-title":"PLoS Genet"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0034442","article-title":"Novel associations for hypothyroidism include known autoimmune risk loci","volume":"7","author":"Eriksson N","year":"2012","unstructured":"Eriksson N, Tung JY, Kiefer AK, Hinds DA, Francke U, Mountain JL, Do CB. Novel associations for hypothyroidism include known autoimmune risk loci. PLoS One. 2012, 7:e34442. 10.1371\/journal.pone.0034442","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajhg.2011.09.008","article-title":"Variants near FOXE1 are associated with hypothyroidism and other thyroid conditions: using electronic medical records for genome- and phenome-wide studies","volume":"89","author":"Denny JC","year":"2011","unstructured":"Denny JC, Crawford DC, Ritchie MD, et al.. Variants near FOXE1 are associated with hypothyroidism and other thyroid conditions: using electronic medical records for genome- and phenome-wide studies. Am J Hum Genet. 2011, 89:529-42. 10.1016\/j.ajhg.2011.09.008","journal-title":"Am J Hum Genet"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.3570","article-title":"Detection and interpretation of shared genetic influences on 42 human traits","volume":"48","author":"Pickrell JK","year":"2016","unstructured":"Pickrell JK, Berisa T, Liu JZ, S\u00e9gurel L, Tung JY, Hinds DA. Detection and interpretation of shared genetic influences on 42 human traits. Nat Genet. 2016, 48:709-17. 10.1038\/ng.3570","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2014-1081","article-title":"Genetic determination of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis: where do we stand?","volume":"36","author":"Medici M","year":"2015","unstructured":"Medici M, Visser WE, Visser TJ, Peeters RP. Genetic determination of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis: where do we stand?. Endocr Rev. 2015, 36:214-44. 10.1210\/er.2014-1081","journal-title":"Endocr Rev"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2012-1616","article-title":"Clinical review: central hypothyroidism: pathogenic, diagnostic, and therapeutic challenges","volume":"97","author":"Persani L","year":"2012","unstructured":"Persani L. Clinical review: central hypothyroidism: pathogenic, diagnostic, and therapeutic challenges. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012, 97:3068-78. 10.1210\/jc.2012-1616","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-10-0785","article-title":"Natural history of the transition from euthyroidism to overt autoimmune hypo- or hyperthyroidism: a prospective study","volume":"164","author":"Effraimidis G","year":"2011","unstructured":"Effraimidis G, Strieder TG, Tijssen JG, Wiersinga WM. Natural history of the transition from euthyroidism to overt autoimmune hypo- or hyperthyroidism: a prospective study. Eur J Endocrinol. 2011, 164:107-13. 10.1530\/EJE-10-0785","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2009-1977","article-title":"Thyrotropin and thyroid antibodies as predictors of hypothyroidism: a 13-year, longitudinal study of a community-based cohort using current immunoassay techniques","volume":"95","author":"Walsh JP","year":"2010","unstructured":"Walsh JP, Bremner AP, Feddema P, Leedman PJ, Brown SJ, O'Leary P. Thyrotropin and thyroid antibodies as predictors of hypothyroidism: a 13-year, longitudinal study of a community-based cohort using current immunoassay techniques. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010, 95:1095-104. 10.1210\/jc.2009-1977","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pgen.1004123","article-title":"Identification of novel genetic Loci associated with thyroid peroxidase antibodies and clinical thyroid disease","volume":"10","author":"Medici M","year":"2014","unstructured":"Medici M, Porcu E, Pistis G, et al.. Identification of novel genetic Loci associated with thyroid peroxidase antibodies and clinical thyroid disease. PLoS Genet. 2014, 10:e1004123. 10.1371\/journal.pgen.1004123","journal-title":"PLoS Genet"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2014-4352","article-title":"A genetic risk score for thyroid peroxidase antibodies associates with clinical thyroid disease in community-based populations","volume":"100","author":"Schultheiss UT","year":"2015","unstructured":"Schultheiss UT, Teumer A, Medici M, et al.. A genetic risk score for thyroid peroxidase antibodies associates with clinical thyroid disease in community-based populations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015, 100:E799-807. 10.1210\/jc.2014-4352","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2008-1548","article-title":"Discontinuation of smoking increases the risk for developing thyroid peroxidase antibodies and\/or thyroglobulin antibodies: a prospective study","volume":"94","author":"Effraimidis G","year":"2009","unstructured":"Effraimidis G, Tijssen JG, Wiersinga WM. Discontinuation of smoking increases the risk for developing thyroid peroxidase antibodies and\/or thyroglobulin antibodies: a prospective study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009, 94:1324-8. 10.1210\/jc.2008-1548","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2004-0431","article-title":"Smoke exposure is associated with a lower prevalence of serum thyroid autoantibodies and thyrotropin concentration elevation and a higher prevalence of mild thyrotropin concentration suppression in the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III)","volume":"89","author":"Belin RM","year":"2004","unstructured":"Belin RM, Astor BC, Powe NR, Ladenson PW. Smoke exposure is associated with a lower prevalence of serum thyroid autoantibodies and thyrotropin concentration elevation and a higher prevalence of mild thyrotropin concentration suppression in the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004, 89:6077-86. 10.1210\/jc.2004-0431","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2015-2222","article-title":"Low population selenium status is associated with increased prevalence of thyroid disease","volume":"100","author":"Wu Q","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wu Q, Rayman MP, Lv H, et al.. Low population selenium status is associated with increased prevalence of thyroid disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015, 100:4037-47. 10.1210\/jc.2015-2222","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/nu5041384","article-title":"Iodine and mental development of children 5 years old and under: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"5","author":"Bougma K","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bougma K, Aboud FE, Harding KB, Marquis GS. Iodine and mental development of children 5 years old and under: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2013, 5:1384-416. 10.3390\/nu5041384","journal-title":"Nutrients"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/s0140-6736(83)90636-0","article-title":"Iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) and their eradication","volume":"2","author":"Hetzel BS","year":"1983","unstructured":"Hetzel BS. Iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) and their eradication. Lancet. 1983, 2:1126-9. 10.1016\/s0140-6736(83)90636-0","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000444578","article-title":"Environmental iodine content, female sex and age are associated with new-onset amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism: a systematic review and meta-analysis of adverse reactions of amiodarone on the thyroid","volume":"134","author":"Zhong B","year":"2016","unstructured":"Zhong B, Wang Y, Zhang G, Wang Z. Environmental iodine content, female sex and age are associated with new-onset amiodarone-induced hypothyroidism: a systematic review and meta-analysis of adverse reactions of amiodarone on the thyroid. Cardiology. 2016, 134:366-71. 10.1159\/000444578","journal-title":"Cardiology"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)61842-0","article-title":"Long-term effects of lithium on renal, thyroid, and parathyroid function: a retrospective analysis of laboratory data","volume":"386","author":"Shine B","year":"2015","unstructured":"Shine B, McKnight RF, Leaver L, Geddes JR. Long-term effects of lithium on renal, thyroid, and parathyroid function: a retrospective analysis of laboratory data. Lancet. 2015, 386:461-8. 10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)61842-0","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajgp.13.4.299","article-title":"New thyroxine treatment in older adults beginning lithium therapy: implications for clinical practice","volume":"13","author":"Shulman KI","year":"2005","unstructured":"Shulman KI, Sykora K, Gill SS, et al.. New thyroxine treatment in older adults beginning lithium therapy: implications for clinical practice. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2005, 13:299-304. 10.1176\/appi.ajgp.13.4.299","journal-title":"Am J Geriatr Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0147048","article-title":"Hypothyroidism side effect in patients treated with sunitinib or sorafenib: clinical and structural analyses","volume":"11","author":"Shu M","year":"2016","unstructured":"Shu M, Zai X, Zhang B, Wang R, Lin Z. Hypothyroidism side effect in patients treated with sunitinib or sorafenib: clinical and structural analyses. PLoS One. 2016, 11:e0147048. 10.1371\/journal.pone.0147048","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2011.04204.x","article-title":"Development of hypothyroidism during long-term follow-up of patients with toxic nodular goitre after radioiodine therapy","volume":"76","author":"Kahraman D","year":"2012","unstructured":"Kahraman D, Keller C, Schneider C, et al.. Development of hypothyroidism during long-term follow-up of patients with toxic nodular goitre after radioiodine therapy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2012, 76:297-303. 10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2011.04204.x","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol (Oxf)"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2014-1347","article-title":"Maximum dose rate is a determinant of hypothyroidism after 131I therapy of Graves' disease but the total thyroid absorbed dose is not","volume":"99","author":"Krohn T","year":"2014","unstructured":"Krohn T, H\u00e4nscheid H, M\u00fcller B, Behrendt FF, Heinzel A, Mottaghy FM, Verburg FA. Maximum dose rate is a determinant of hypothyroidism after 131I therapy of Graves' disease but the total thyroid absorbed dose is not. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014, 99:4109-15. 10.1210\/jc.2014-1347","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clon.2016.05.004","article-title":"Dosimetric predictors of hypothyroidism after radical intensity-modulated radiation therapy for non-metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma","volume":"28","author":"Lee V","year":"2016","unstructured":"Lee V, Chan SY, Choi CW, et al.. Dosimetric predictors of hypothyroidism after radical intensity-modulated radiation therapy for non-metastatic nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol). 2016, 28:e52-60. 10.1016\/j.clon.2016.05.004","journal-title":"Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol)"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2012-1063","article-title":"Risk of hypothyroidism following hemithyroidectomy: systematic review and meta-analysis of prognostic studies","volume":"97","author":"Verloop H","year":"2012","unstructured":"Verloop H, Louwerens M, Schoones JW, Kievit J, Smit JW, Dekkers OM. Risk of hypothyroidism following hemithyroidectomy: systematic review and meta-analysis of prognostic studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012, 97:2243-55. 10.1210\/jc.2012-1063","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.26186","article-title":"Risk factors for radiation-induced hypothyroidism: a literature-based meta-analysis","volume":"117","author":"Vogelius IR","year":"2011","unstructured":"Vogelius IR, Bentzen SM, Maraldo MV, Petersen PM, Specht L. Risk factors for radiation-induced hypothyroidism: a literature-based meta-analysis. Cancer. 2011, 117:5250-60. 10.1002\/cncr.26186","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2265.1999.00635.x","article-title":"Long-term effect of radioactive iodine on thyroid function and size in patients with solitary autonomously functioning toxic thyroid nodules","volume":"50","author":"Nygaard B","year":"1999","unstructured":"Nygaard B, Heged\u00fcs L, Nielsen KG, Ulriksen P, Hansen JM. Long-term effect of radioactive iodine on thyroid function and size in patients with solitary autonomously functioning toxic thyroid nodules. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1999, 50:197-202. 10.1046\/j.1365-2265.1999.00635.x","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol (Oxf)"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.85.10.6895","article-title":"Circulating thyrotropin bioactivity in sporadic central hypothyroidism","volume":"85","author":"Persani L","year":"2000","unstructured":"Persani L, Ferretti E, Borgato S, Faglia G, Beck-Peccoz P. Circulating thyrotropin bioactivity in sporadic central hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000, 85:3631-5. 10.1210\/jcem.85.10.6895","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-13-0920","article-title":"Endocrine side-effects of anti-cancer drugs: the impact of retinoids on the thyroid axis","volume":"170","author":"Graeppi-Dulac J","year":"2014","unstructured":"Graeppi-Dulac J, Vlaeminck-Guillem V, Perier-Muzet M, Dalle S, Orgiazzi J. Endocrine side-effects of anti-cancer drugs: the impact of retinoids on the thyroid axis. Eur J Endocrinol. 2014, 170:R253-62. 10.1530\/EJE-13-0920","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11102-014-0559-8","article-title":"Central hypothyroidism in adults: better understanding for better care","volume":"18","author":"Grunenwald S","year":"2015","unstructured":"Grunenwald S, Caron P. Central hypothyroidism in adults: better understanding for better care. Pituitary. 2015, 18:169-75. 10.1007\/s11102-014-0559-8","journal-title":"Pituitary"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200007203430305","article-title":"Severe hypothyroidism caused by type 3 iodothyronine deiodinase in infantile hemangiomas","volume":"343","author":"Huang SA","year":"2000","unstructured":"Huang SA, Tu HM, Harney JW, et al.. Severe hypothyroidism caused by type 3 iodothyronine deiodinase in infantile hemangiomas. N Engl J Med. 2000, 343:185-9. 10.1056\/NEJM200007203430305","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2012.08.005","article-title":"The syndromes of reduced sensitivity to thyroid hormone","volume":"1830","author":"Dumitrescu AM","year":"2013","unstructured":"Dumitrescu AM, Refetoff S. The syndromes of reduced sensitivity to thyroid hormone. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2013, 1830:3987-4003. 10.1016\/j.bbagen.2012.08.005","journal-title":"Biochim Biophys Acta"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/cc6218","article-title":"Predictors of outcome in myxoedema coma","volume":"12","author":"Beynon J","year":"2008","unstructured":"Beynon J, Akhtar S, Kearney T. Predictors of outcome in myxoedema coma. Crit Care. 2008, 12:111. 10.1186\/cc6218","journal-title":"Crit Care"},{"key":"ref48","article-title":"Myxedema and Coma (Severe Hypothyroidism)","author":"Wiersinga WM","year":"2018","unstructured":"Wiersinga WM. Myxedema and Coma (Severe Hypothyroidism) . Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Blackman MR, et al (ed): Endotext [Internet], South Dartmouth, MA; 2018."},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4158\/EP.12.1.29","article-title":"Pituitary enlargement in patients with primary hypothyroidism","volume":"12","author":"Khawaja NM","year":"2006","unstructured":"Khawaja NM, Taher BM, Barham ME, et al.. Pituitary enlargement in patients with primary hypothyroidism. Endocr Pract. 2006, 12:29-34. 10.4158\/EP.12.1.29","journal-title":"Endocr Pract"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.12787","article-title":"Gender differences in symptoms of hypothyroidism: a population-based DanThyr study","volume":"83","author":"Carl\u00e9 A","year":"2015","unstructured":"Carl\u00e9 A, Pedersen IB, Knudsen N, Perrild H, Ovesen L, Laurberg P. Gender differences in symptoms of hypothyroidism: a population-based DanThyr study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2015, 83:717-25. 10.1111\/cen.12787","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol (Oxf)"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2016.06.013","article-title":"Hypothyroid symptoms fail to predict thyroid insufficiency in old people: a population-based case-control study","volume":"129","author":"Carl\u00e9 A","year":"2016","unstructured":"Carl\u00e9 A, Pedersen IB, Knudsen N, Perrild H, Ovesen L, Andersen S, Laurberg P. Hypothyroid symptoms fail to predict thyroid insufficiency in old people: a population-based case-control study. Am J Med. 2016, 129:1082-92. 10.1016\/j.amjmed.2016.06.013","journal-title":"Am J Med"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1525-1497.1997.07109.x","article-title":"Do traditional symptoms of hypothyroidism correlate with biochemical disease?","volume":"12","author":"Canaris GJ","year":"1997","unstructured":"Canaris GJ, Steiner JF, Ridgway EC. Do traditional symptoms of hypothyroidism correlate with biochemical disease?. J Gen Intern Med. 1997, 12:544-50. 10.1046\/j.1525-1497.1997.07109.x","journal-title":"J Gen Intern Med"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-14-0481","article-title":"Hypothyroid symptoms and the likelihood of overt thyroid failure: a population-based case-control study","volume":"171","author":"Carl\u00e9 A","year":"2014","unstructured":"Carl\u00e9 A, Pedersen IB, Knudsen N, Perrild H, Ovesen L, Laurberg P. Hypothyroid symptoms and the likelihood of overt thyroid failure: a population-based case-control study. Eur J Endocrinol. 2014, 171:593-602. 10.1530\/EJE-14-0481","journal-title":"Eur J Endocrinol"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0151266","article-title":"Native magnetic resonance T1-mapping identifies diffuse myocardial injury in hypothyroidism","volume":"11","author":"Gao X","year":"2016","unstructured":"Gao X, Liu M, Qu A, et al.. Native magnetic resonance T1-mapping identifies diffuse myocardial injury in hypothyroidism. PLoS One. 2016, 11:e0151266. 10.1371\/journal.pone.0151266","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2015.0410","article-title":"Association of serum thyrotropin with anthropometric markers of obesity in the general population","volume":"26","author":"Tiller D","year":"2016","unstructured":"Tiller D, Ittermann T, Greiser KH, et al.. Association of serum thyrotropin with anthropometric markers of obesity in the general population. Thyroid. 2016, 26:1205-14. 10.1089\/thy.2015.0410","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2015.0452","article-title":"Diminished quality of life and increased brain functional connectivity in patients with hypothyroidism after total thyroidectomy","volume":"26","author":"Shin YW","year":"2016","unstructured":"Shin YW, Choi YM, Kim HS, et al.. Diminished quality of life and increased brain functional connectivity in patients with hypothyroidism after total thyroidectomy. Thyroid. 2016, 26:641-9. 10.1089\/thy.2015.0452","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1447-0594.2011.00728.x","article-title":"Prevalence of potentially reversible conditions in dementia and mild cognitive impairment in a geriatric clinic","volume":"12","author":"Muangpaisan W","year":"2012","unstructured":"Muangpaisan W, Petcharat C, Srinonprasert V. Prevalence of potentially reversible conditions in dementia and mild cognitive impairment in a geriatric clinic. Geriatr Gerontol Int. 2012, 12:59-64. 10.1111\/j.1447-0594.2011.00728.x","journal-title":"Geriatr Gerontol Int"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacl.2014.05.005","article-title":"Hypothyroidism as a risk factor for statin intolerance","volume":"8","author":"Robison CD","year":"2014","unstructured":"Robison CD, Bair TL, Horne BD, McCubrey RO, Lappe DL, Muhlestein JB, Anderson JL. Hypothyroidism as a risk factor for statin intolerance. J Clin Lipidol. 2014, 8:401-7. 10.1016\/j.jacl.2014.05.005","journal-title":"J Clin Lipidol"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7326\/M15-0483","article-title":"Screening for thyroid dysfunction: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement","volume":"162","author":"LeFevre ML","year":"2015","unstructured":"LeFevre ML. Screening for thyroid dysfunction: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med. 2015, 162:641-50. 10.7326\/M15-0483","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2009-1959","article-title":"Thyrotropin secretion in mild and severe primary hypothyroidism is distinguished by amplified burst mass and Basal secretion with increased spikiness and approximate entropy","volume":"95","author":"Roelfsema F","year":"2010","unstructured":"Roelfsema F, Pereira AM, Adriaanse R, Endert E, Fliers E, Romijn JA, Veldhuis JD. Thyrotropin secretion in mild and severe primary hypothyroidism is distinguished by amplified burst mass and Basal secretion with increased spikiness and approximate entropy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010, 95:928-34. 10.1210\/jc.2009-1959","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2013-1607","article-title":"Effect of seasonal changes on the transition between subclinical hypothyroid and euthyroid status","volume":"98","author":"Kim TH","year":"2013","unstructured":"Kim TH, Kim KW, Ahn HY, et al.. Effect of seasonal changes on the transition between subclinical hypothyroid and euthyroid status. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013, 98:3420-9. 10.1210\/jc.2013-1607","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2016-2255","article-title":"Thyroid function within the reference range and the risk of stroke: an individual participant data analysis","volume":"101","author":"Chaker L","year":"2016","unstructured":"Chaker L, Baumgartner C, den Elzen WP, et al.. Thyroid function within the reference range and the risk of stroke: an individual participant data analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2016, 101:4270-82. 10.1210\/jc.2016-2255","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.020789","article-title":"Thyroid function and sudden cardiac death: a prospective population-based cohort study","volume":"134","author":"Chaker L","year":"2016","unstructured":"Chaker L, van den Berg ME, Niemeijer MN, et al.. Thyroid function and sudden cardiac death: a prospective population-based cohort study. Circulation. 2016, 134:713-22. 10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.020789","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2014-3586","article-title":"Thyroid function in the euthyroid range and adverse outcomes in older adults","volume":"100","author":"Cappola AR","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cappola AR, Arnold AM, Wulczyn K, Carlson M, Robbins J, Psaty BM. Thyroid function in the euthyroid range and adverse outcomes in older adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015, 100:1088-96. 10.1210\/jc.2014-3586","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2016.0156","article-title":"Association between serum thyrotropin levels and mortality among euthyroid adults in the United States","volume":"26","author":"Inoue K","year":"2016","unstructured":"Inoue K, Tsujimoto T, Saito J, Sugiyama T. Association between serum thyrotropin levels and mortality among euthyroid adults in the United States. Thyroid. 2016, 26:1457-65. 10.1089\/thy.2016.0156","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2009-1845","article-title":"Age- and race-based serum thyrotropin reference limits","volume":"95","author":"Surks MI","year":"2010","unstructured":"Surks MI, Boucai L. Age- and race-based serum thyrotropin reference limits. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010, 95:496-502. 10.1210\/jc.2009-1845","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4158\/EP13246.CO","article-title":"TSH reference limits: new concepts and implications for diagnosis of subclinical hypothyroidism","volume":"19","author":"Surks MI","year":"2013","unstructured":"Surks MI. TSH reference limits: new concepts and implications for diagnosis of subclinical hypothyroidism. Endocr Pract. 2013, 19:1066-9. 10.4158\/EP13246.CO","journal-title":"Endocr Pract"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2005-0455","article-title":"The evidence for a narrower thyrotropin reference range is compelling","volume":"90","author":"Wartofsky L","year":"2005","unstructured":"Wartofsky L, Dickey RA. The evidence for a narrower thyrotropin reference range is compelling. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005, 90:5483-8. 10.1210\/jc.2005-0455","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2012.04463.x","article-title":"Age-specific TSH reference ranges have minimal impact on the diagnosis of thyroid dysfunction","volume":"77","author":"Kahapola-Arachchige KM","year":"2012","unstructured":"Kahapola-Arachchige KM, Hadlow N, Wardrop R, Lim EM, Walsh JP. Age-specific TSH reference ranges have minimal impact on the diagnosis of thyroid dysfunction. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2012, 77:773-9. 10.1111\/j.1365-2265.2012.04463.x","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol (Oxf)"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2012-3191","article-title":"Age- and gender-specific TSH reference intervals in people with no obvious thyroid disease in Tayside, Scotland: the Thyroid Epidemiology, Audit, and Research Study (TEARS)","volume":"98","author":"Vadiveloo T","year":"2013","unstructured":"Vadiveloo T, Donnan PT, Murphy MJ, Leese GP. Age- and gender-specific TSH reference intervals in people with no obvious thyroid disease in Tayside, Scotland: the Thyroid Epidemiology, Audit, and Research Study (TEARS). J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2013, 98:1147-53. 10.1210\/jc.2012-3191","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2014.0028","article-title":"Guidelines for the treatment of hypothyroidism: prepared by the american thyroid association task force on thyroid hormone replacement","volume":"24","author":"Jonklaas J","year":"2014","unstructured":"Jonklaas J, Bianco AC, Bauer AJ, et al.. Guidelines for the treatment of hypothyroidism: prepared by the american thyroid association task force on thyroid hormone replacement. Thyroid. 2014, 24:1670-751. 10.1089\/thy.2014.0028","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000356507","article-title":"2013 ETA Guideline: management of subclinical hypothyroidism","volume":"2","author":"Pearce SH","year":"2013","unstructured":"Pearce SH, Brabant G, Duntas LH, Monzani F, Peeters RP, Razvi S, Wemeau JL. 2013 ETA Guideline: management of subclinical hypothyroidism. Eur Thyroid J. 2013, 2:215-28. 10.1159\/000356507","journal-title":"Eur Thyroid J"},{"key":"ref73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.165.15.1714","article-title":"The starting dose of levothyroxine in primary hypothyroidism treatment: a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial","volume":"165","author":"Roos A","year":"2005","unstructured":"Roos A, Linn-Rasker SP, van Domburg RT, Tijssen JP, Berghout A. The starting dose of levothyroxine in primary hypothyroidism treatment: a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial. Arch Intern Med. 2005, 165:1714-20. 10.1001\/archinte.165.15.1714","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"key":"ref74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.12538","article-title":"Defending plasma T3 is a biological priority","volume":"81","author":"Abdalla SM","year":"2014","unstructured":"Abdalla SM, Bianco AC. Defending plasma T3 is a biological priority. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2014, 81:633-41. 10.1111\/cen.12538","journal-title":"Clin Endocrinol (Oxf)"},{"key":"ref75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamainternmed.2013.11312","article-title":"Falling threshold for treatment of borderline elevated thyrotropin levels-balancing benefits and risks: evidence from a large community-based study","volume":"174","author":"Taylor PN","year":"2014","unstructured":"Taylor PN, Iqbal A, Minassian C, et al.. Falling threshold for treatment of borderline elevated thyrotropin levels-balancing benefits and risks: evidence from a large community-based study. JAMA Intern Med. 2014, 174:32-9. 10.1001\/jamainternmed.2013.11312","journal-title":"JAMA Intern Med"},{"key":"ref76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2008-1696","article-title":"High frequency of and factors associated with thyroid hormone over-replacement and under-replacement in men and women aged 65 and over","volume":"94","author":"Somwaru LL","year":"2009","unstructured":"Somwaru LL, Arnold AM, Joshi N, Fried LP, Cappola AR. High frequency of and factors associated with thyroid hormone over-replacement and under-replacement in men and women aged 65 and over. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2009, 94:1342-5. 10.1210\/jc.2008-1696","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"}],"container-title":["Cureus"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/175208-epidemiology-types-causes-clinical-presentation-diagnosis-and-treatment-of-hypothyroidism","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,9]],"date-time":"2024-02-09T15:09:06Z","timestamp":1707491346000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/175208-epidemiology-types-causes-clinical-presentation-diagnosis-and-treatment-of-hypothyroidism"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,30]]},"references-count":76,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7759\/cureus.46241","relation":{},"ISSN":["2168-8184"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2168-8184","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,30]]}}}