{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,25]],"date-time":"2026-08-25T23:45:02Z","timestamp":1787701502169,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]]},"DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.59329","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,30]],"date-time":"2024-04-30T06:51:02Z","timestamp":1714459862000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Instances of Biowarfare in World War I (1914\u20131918)"],"prefix":"10.7759","author":[{"given":"Ioannis","family":"Nikolakakis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Spyros N","family":"Michaleas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Panayiotakopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Theodore G","family":"Papaioannou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marianna","family":"Karamanou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/2189634","article-title":"Present status of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907","volume":"25","author":"Hudson MO","year":"1931","unstructured":"Hudson MO. Present status of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. Am J Int Law. 1931, 25:114-117. 10.2307\/2189634","journal-title":"Am J Int Law"},{"key":"ref2","article-title":"Glanders and Melioidosis","author":"Nguyen HVN","year":"2024","unstructured":"Nguyen HVN, Smith ME, Hayoun MA. Glanders and Melioidosis. StatPearls, Treasure Island; 2024."},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/1750-1172-8-131","article-title":"Glanders: an overview of infection in humans","volume":"8","author":"Van Zandt KE","year":"2013","unstructured":"Van Zandt KE, Greer MT, Gelhaus HC. Glanders: an overview of infection in humans. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2013, 8:131. 10.1186\/1750-1172-8-131","journal-title":"Orphanet J Rare Dis"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Etymologia. Glanders - Volume 21, Number 1\u2014January 2015 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC. (2015). https:\/\/wwwnc.cdc.gov\/eid\/article\/21\/1\/et-2101_article.","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2101.ET2101"},{"key":"ref5","article-title":"The eradication of glanders in Canada","volume":"43","author":"Derbyshire B","year":"2002","unstructured":"Derbyshire B. The eradication of glanders in Canada. Can Vet J. 2002, 43:722-726.","journal-title":"Can Vet J"},{"key":"ref6","article-title":"The contagion of snot: study method of P. Rayer at the Lamirault Farm(unpublished papers 1837-1843) (Article in French)","volume":"36","author":"Richet G","year":"2002","unstructured":"Richet G. The contagion of snot: study method of P. Rayer at the Lamirault Farm(unpublished papers 1837-1843) (Article in French). Hist Sci Med. 2002, 36:389-408.","journal-title":"Hist Sci Med"},{"key":"ref7","article-title":"The great glanders epizootic, 1861-1866: a Civil War legacy","volume":"69","author":"Sharrer GT","year":"1995","unstructured":"Sharrer GT. The great glanders epizootic, 1861-1866: a Civil War legacy. Agric Hist. 1995, 69:79-97.","journal-title":"Agric Hist"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2015.07.032","article-title":"Friedrich August Johannes L\u00f6ffler (Loeffler), German bacteriologist","volume":"90","author":"Kyle RA","year":"2015","unstructured":"Kyle RA, Steensma DP, Shampo MA. Friedrich August Johannes L\u00f6ffler (Loeffler), German bacteriologist. Mayo Clin Proc. 2015, 90:e135. 10.1016\/j.mayocp.2015.07.032","journal-title":"Mayo Clin Proc"},{"key":"ref9","article-title":"Glanders and Mallein","volume":"16","author":"Gill HD","year":"1895","unstructured":"Gill HD. Glanders and Mallein. J Comp Med Vet Arch. 1895, 16:653-656.","journal-title":"J Comp Med Vet Arch"},{"key":"ref10","article-title":"Medical Aspects of Biological Warfare","author":"Dembek ZF","year":"2007","unstructured":"Dembek ZF. Medical Aspects of Biological Warfare. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC; 2007."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra012892","article-title":"Recognition and management of anthrax \u2014 an update","volume":"345","author":"Swartz MN","year":"2001","unstructured":"Swartz MN. Recognition and management of anthrax \u2014 an update. N Engl J Med. 2001, 345:1621-1626. 10.1056\/NEJMra012892","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref12","article-title":"Anthrax \u2014 an overview","volume":"9","author":"Onc\u00fc S","year":"2003","unstructured":"Onc\u00fc S, Onc\u00fc S, Sakarya S. Anthrax \u2014 an overview. Med Sci Monit. 2003, 9:276-283.","journal-title":"Med Sci Monit"},{"key":"ref13","unstructured":"History of Anthrax. (2020). Accessed. April 18, 2024: https:\/\/www.cdc.gov\/anthrax\/basics\/anthrax-history.html."},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.36800","article-title":"The history of anthrax weaponization in the Soviet Union","volume":"15","author":"Nikolakakis I","year":"2023","unstructured":"Nikolakakis I, Michaleas SN, Panayiotakopoulos G, Papaioannou TG, Karamanou M. The history of anthrax weaponization in the Soviet Union. Cureus. 2023, 15:e36800. 10.7759\/cureus.36800","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02684529208432176","article-title":"Wickham steed and German biological warfare research","volume":"7","author":"Hugh\u2010Jones M","year":"1992","unstructured":"Hugh\u2010Jones M. Wickham steed and German biological warfare research. Intell Natl Secur. 1992, 7:379-402. 10.1080\/02684529208432176","journal-title":"Intell Natl Secur"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/31612","article-title":"Deadly relic of the Great War","volume":"393","author":"Redmond C","year":"1998","unstructured":"Redmond C, Pearce MJ, Manchee RJ, Berdal BP. Deadly relic of the Great War. Nature. 1998, 393:747-748. 10.1038\/31612","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref17","article-title":"Anthrax","author":"Simonsen KA","year":"2023","unstructured":"Simonsen KA, Chatterjee K. Anthrax. StatPearls, Treasure Island; 2023."},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780190928858.001.0001","article-title":"Stalin's Secret Weapon: The Origins of Soviet Biological Warfare","author":"Rimmington A","year":"2018","unstructured":"Rimmington A. Stalin's Secret Weapon: The Origins of Soviet Biological Warfare. Oxford Academic, 2018. 10.1093\/oso\/9780190928858.001.0001"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00440-17","article-title":"Unexpected relations of historical anthrax strain","volume":"8","author":"Antwerpen MH","year":"2017","unstructured":"Antwerpen MH, Sahl JW, Birdsell D, et al.. Unexpected relations of historical anthrax strain. mBio. 2017, 8:10.1128\/mBio.00440-17","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2023.1155751","article-title":"Vibrio cholerae, classification, pathogenesis, immune response, and trends in vaccine development","volume":"10","author":"Montero DA","year":"2023","unstructured":"Montero DA, Vidal RM, Velasco J, et al.. Vibrio cholerae, classification, pathogenesis, immune response, and trends in vaccine development. Front Med (Lausanne). 2023, 10:1155751. 10.3389\/fmed.2023.1155751","journal-title":"Front Med (Lausanne)"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.13071","article-title":"Burkholderia mallei: the dynamics of networks and disease transmission","volume":"66","author":"C\u00e1rdenas NC","year":"2019","unstructured":"C\u00e1rdenas NC, Galvis JO, Farinati AA, Grisi-Filho JH, Diehl GN, Machado G. Burkholderia mallei: the dynamics of networks and disease transmission. Transbound Emerg Dis. 2019, 66:715-728. 10.1111\/tbed.13071","journal-title":"Transbound Emerg Dis"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/659103","article-title":"Franz von Papen, Catholic conservatives, and the establishment of the Third Reich, 1933-1934","volume":"83","author":"Jones","year":"2011","unstructured":"Jones, Larry E. Franz von Papen, Catholic conservatives, and the establishment of the Third Reich, 1933-1934. J Mod Hist. 2011, 83:272-318. 10.1086\/659103","journal-title":"J Mod Hist"},{"key":"ref23","article-title":"The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare: The rise of CB weapons","author":"Stockholm International Peace Research Institute","year":"1971","unstructured":"Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. The Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare: The rise of CB weapons. Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm; 1971. https:\/\/www.sipri.org\/sites\/default\/files\/CBW_VOL1.PDF."},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/26089","article-title":"First shots fired in biological warfare","volume":"395","author":"Wheelis M","year":"1998","unstructured":"Wheelis M. First shots fired in biological warfare. Nature. 1998, 395:213. 10.1038\/26089","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref25","article-title":"The Fourth Horseman: One Man\u2019s Secret Mission to Wage the Great War in America","author":"Koenig RL","year":"2006","unstructured":"Koenig RL. The Fourth Horseman: One Man\u2019s Secret Mission to Wage the Great War in America. Public Affairs, New York; 2006."},{"key":"ref26","unstructured":"INTEL - Biological Warfare Comes to the U.S.. Accessed. April 18, 2024: https:\/\/www.intelligence.gov\/evolution-of-espionage\/world-war-1\/sabotage-subterfuge-and-war\/biological-warfare."},{"key":"ref27","article-title":"The Soviet Biological Weapons Program","author":"Leitenberg M","year":"2012","unstructured":"Leitenberg M, Zilinskas R, Kuhn J. The Soviet Biological Weapons Program. Harvard University Press, Cambridge; 2012."},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-144-4-200602210-00009","article-title":"Systematic review: a century of inhalational anthrax cases from 1900 to 2005","volume":"144","author":"Holty JE","year":"2006","unstructured":"Holty JE, Bravata DM, Liu H, Olshen RA, McDonald KM, Owens DK. Systematic review: a century of inhalational anthrax cases from 1900 to 2005. Ann Intern Med. 2006, 144:270-280. 10.7326\/0003-4819-144-4-200602210-00009","journal-title":"Ann Intern Med"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.embor.7400689","article-title":"Scientists and the history of biological weapons. A brief historical overview of the development of biological weapons in the twentieth century","volume":"7","author":"Guillemin J","year":"2006","unstructured":"Guillemin J. Scientists and the history of biological weapons. A brief historical overview of the development of biological weapons in the twentieth century. EMBO Rep. 2006, 7:S45-S49. 10.1038\/sj.embor.7400689","journal-title":"EMBO Rep"}],"container-title":["Cureus"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/249972-instances-of-biowarfare-in-world-war-i-1914-1918","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,30]],"date-time":"2024-04-30T06:51:07Z","timestamp":1714459867000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/249972-instances-of-biowarfare-in-world-war-i-1914-1918"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]]},"references-count":29,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7759\/cureus.59329","relation":{},"ISSN":["2168-8184"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2168-8184","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]]}}}