{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T16:09:47Z","timestamp":1791216587370,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,2]]},"DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.68492","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,3]],"date-time":"2024-09-03T01:21:06Z","timestamp":1725326466000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Postoperative Delirium and Neurocognitive Disorders: A Comprehensive Review of Pathophysiology, Risk Factors, and Management Strategies"],"prefix":"10.7759","author":[{"given":"Sharayu","family":"Paunikar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vivek","family":"Chakole","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinane.2021.110496","article-title":"Association of postoperative delirium with cognitive outcomes: a meta-analysis","volume":"75","author":"Huang H","year":"2021","unstructured":"Huang H, Li H, Zhang X, et al.. Association of postoperative delirium with cognitive outcomes: a meta-analysis. J Clin Anesth. 2021, 75:110496. 10.1016\/j.jclinane.2021.110496","journal-title":"J Clin Anesth"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2024.1328790","article-title":"Postoperative cognitive dysfunction-current research progress","volume":"18","author":"Zhao Q","year":"2024","unstructured":"Zhao Q, Wan H, Pan H, Xu Y. Postoperative cognitive dysfunction-current research progress. Front Behav Neurosci. 2024, 18:1328790. 10.3389\/fnbeh.2024.1328790","journal-title":"Front Behav Neurosci"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/sja.sja_529_23","article-title":"Postoperative cognitive recovery and prevention of postoperative cognitive complications in the elderly patient","volume":"17","author":"Almuzayyen HA","year":"2023","unstructured":"Almuzayyen HA, Chowdhury T, Alghamdi AS. Postoperative cognitive recovery and prevention of postoperative cognitive complications in the elderly patient. Saudi J Anaesth. 2023, 17:550-6. 10.4103\/sja.sja_529_23","journal-title":"Saudi J Anaesth"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-020-1449-8","article-title":"Incidence of and risk factors for postoperative delirium in older adult patients undergoing noncardiac surgery: a prospective study","volume":"20","author":"Iamaroon A","year":"2020","unstructured":"Iamaroon A, Wongviriyawong T, Sura-Arunsumrit P, Wiwatnodom N, Rewuri N, Chaiwat O. Incidence of and risk factors for postoperative delirium in older adult patients undergoing noncardiac surgery: a prospective study. BMC Geriatr. 2020, 20:40. 10.1186\/s12877-020-1449-8","journal-title":"BMC Geriatr"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16183488","article-title":"Perspectives on disability and non-communicable diseases in low- and middle-income countries, with a focus on stroke and dementia","volume":"16","author":"Prynn JE","year":"2019","unstructured":"Prynn JE, Kuper H. Perspectives on disability and non-communicable diseases in low- and middle-income countries, with a focus on stroke and dementia. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019, 16:3488. 10.3390\/ijerph16183488","journal-title":"Int J Environ Res Public Health"},{"key":"ref6","unstructured":"Noncommunicable diseases. (2023). Accessed. August 26, 2024: https:\/\/www.who.int\/health-topics\/noncommunicable-diseases."},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/IJGM.S349232","article-title":"Evidence-based guideline on management of postoperative delirium in older people for low resource setting: systematic review article","volume":"15","author":"Mossie A","year":"2022","unstructured":"Mossie A, Regasa T, Neme D, Awoke Z, Zemedkun A, Hailu S. Evidence-based guideline on management of postoperative delirium in older people for low resource setting: systematic review article. Int J Gen Med. 2022, 15:4053-65. 10.2147\/IJGM.S349232","journal-title":"Int J Gen Med"},{"key":"ref8","article-title":"ICU Delirium","author":"Ali M","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ali M, Cascella M. ICU Delirium. StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island, FL; 2024."},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archsurg.2011.14","article-title":"Motor subtypes of postoperative delirium in older adults","volume":"146","author":"Robinson TN","year":"2011","unstructured":"Robinson TN, Raeburn CD, Tran ZV, Brenner LA, Moss M. Motor subtypes of postoperative delirium in older adults. Arch Surg. 2011, 146:295-300. 10.1001\/archsurg.2011.14","journal-title":"Arch Surg"},{"key":"ref10","article-title":"Major Neurocognitive Disorder (Dementia)","author":"Emmady PD","year":"2024","unstructured":"Emmady PD, Schoo C, Tadi P. Major Neurocognitive Disorder (Dementia). StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island, FL; 2024."},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12916-014-0141-2","article-title":"The DSM-5 criteria, level of arousal and delirium diagnosis: inclusiveness is safer","volume":"12","author":"European Delirium Association & American Delirium Society","year":"2014","unstructured":"European Delirium Association & American Delirium Society. The DSM-5 criteria, level of arousal and delirium diagnosis: inclusiveness is safer. BMC Med. 2014, 12:141. 10.1186\/s12916-014-0141-2","journal-title":"BMC Med"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2008.01674.x","article-title":"The Confusion Assessment Method: a systematic review of current usage","volume":"56","author":"Wei LA","year":"2008","unstructured":"Wei LA, Fearing MA, Sternberg EJ, Inouye SK. The Confusion Assessment Method: a systematic review of current usage. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2008, 56:823-30. 10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2008.01674.x","journal-title":"J Am Geriatr Soc"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinane.2023.111320","article-title":"Postoperative neurocognitive disorders: a clinical guide","volume":"92","author":"Dilmen OK","year":"2024","unstructured":"Dilmen OK, Meco BC, Evered LA, Radtke FM. Postoperative neurocognitive disorders: a clinical guide. J Clin Anesth. 2024, 92:111320. 10.1016\/j.jclinane.2023.111320","journal-title":"J Clin Anesth"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/wvn.12649","article-title":"Incidence of postoperative delirium in older adults undergoing surgical procedures: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis","volume":"20","author":"Igwe EO","year":"2023","unstructured":"Igwe EO, Nealon J, O'Shaughnessy P, et al.. Incidence of postoperative delirium in older adults undergoing surgical procedures: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Worldviews Evid Based Nurs. 2023, 20:220-37. 10.1111\/wvn.12649","journal-title":"Worldviews Evid Based Nurs"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11420-017-9561-9","article-title":"The incidence of perioperative cardiac events after orthopedic surgery: a single institutional experience of cases performed over one year","volume":"13","author":"Urban MK","year":"2017","unstructured":"Urban MK, Wolfe SW, Sanghavi NM, Fields K, Magid SK. The incidence of perioperative cardiac events after orthopedic surgery: a single institutional experience of cases performed over one year. HSS J. 2017, 13:248-54. 10.1007\/s11420-017-9561-9","journal-title":"HSS J"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.31887\/DCNS.2016.18.4\/cepperson","article-title":"Considering sex and gender in Alzheimer disease and other dementias","volume":"18","author":"Podcasy JL","year":"2016","unstructured":"Podcasy JL, Epperson CN. Considering sex and gender in Alzheimer disease and other dementias . Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2016, 18:437-46. 10.31887\/DCNS.2016.18.4\/cepperson","journal-title":"Dialogues Clin Neurosci"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12165346","article-title":"Delirium and its association with short- and long-term health outcomes in medically admitted patients: a prospective study","volume":"12","author":"Al Huraizi AR","year":"2023","unstructured":"Al Huraizi AR, Al-Maqbali JS, Al Farsi RS, Al Zeedy K, Al-Saadi T, Al-Hamadani N, Al Alawi AM. Delirium and its association with short- and long-term health outcomes in medically admitted patients: a prospective study. J Clin Med. 2023, 12:5346. 10.3390\/jcm12165346","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afab237","article-title":"The association between the inflammatory response following surgery and post-operative delirium in older oncological patients: a prospective cohort study","volume":"51","author":"Brattinga B","year":"2022","unstructured":"Brattinga B, Plas M, Spikman JM, et al.. The association between the inflammatory response following surgery and post-operative delirium in older oncological patients: a prospective cohort study. Age Ageing. 2022, 51:237. 10.1093\/ageing\/afab237","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3978\/j.issn.2305-5839.2015.03.49","article-title":"Role of pro-inflammatory cytokines released from microglia in Alzheimer's disease","volume":"3","author":"Wang WY","year":"2015","unstructured":"Wang WY, Tan MS, Yu JT, Tan L. Role of pro-inflammatory cytokines released from microglia in Alzheimer's disease. Ann Transl Med. 2015, 3:136. 10.3978\/j.issn.2305-5839.2015.03.49","journal-title":"Ann Transl Med"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2018.00752","article-title":"The role of neuroinflammation in postoperative cognitive dysfunction: moving from hypothesis to treatment","volume":"9","author":"Safavynia SA","year":"2018","unstructured":"Safavynia SA, Goldstein PA. The role of neuroinflammation in postoperative cognitive dysfunction: moving from hypothesis to treatment. Front Psychiatry. 2018, 9:752. 10.3389\/fpsyt.2018.00752","journal-title":"Front Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/63.7.764","article-title":"Cholinergic deficiency hypothesis in delirium: a synthesis of current evidence","volume":"63","author":"Hshieh TT","year":"2008","unstructured":"Hshieh TT, Fong TG, Marcantonio ER, Inouye SK. Cholinergic deficiency hypothesis in delirium: a synthesis of current evidence. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2008, 63:764-72. 10.1093\/gerona\/63.7.764","journal-title":"J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3969\/j.issn.1673-5374.2013.21.009","article-title":"Oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage and neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"8","author":"Guo C","year":"2013","unstructured":"Guo C, Sun L, Chen X, Zhang D. Oxidative stress, mitochondrial damage and neurodegenerative diseases. Neural Regen Res. 2013, 8:2003-14. 10.3969\/j.issn.1673-5374.2013.21.009","journal-title":"Neural Regen Res"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines11092488","article-title":"Mitochondria and brain disease: a comprehensive review of pathological mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities","volume":"11","author":"Clemente-Su\u00e1rez VJ","year":"2023","unstructured":"Clemente-Su\u00e1rez VJ, Redondo-Fl\u00f3rez L, Beltr\u00e1n-Velasco AI, et al.. Mitochondria and brain disease: a comprehensive review of pathological mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities. Biomedicines. 2023, 11:2488. 10.3390\/biomedicines11092488","journal-title":"Biomedicines"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/1059678","article-title":"Association between the apoe \u03b54 allele and late-onset alzheimer\u2019s disease in an ecuadorian mestizo population","volume":"2017","author":"Montufar S","year":"2017","unstructured":"Montufar S, Calero C, Vinueza R, et al.. Association between the apoe \u03b54 allele and late-onset alzheimer\u2019s disease in an ecuadorian mestizo population. Int J Alzheimers Dis. 2017, 2017:1059678. 10.1155\/2017\/1059678","journal-title":"Int J Alzheimers Dis"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000006212","article-title":"APOE \u03b54 is associated with severity of Lewy body pathology independent of Alzheimer pathology","volume":"91","author":"Dickson DW","year":"2018","unstructured":"Dickson DW, Heckman MG, Murray ME, et al.. APOE \u03b54 is associated with severity of Lewy body pathology independent of Alzheimer pathology. Neurology. 2018, 91:e1182-95. 10.1212\/WNL.0000000000006212","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2018.00311","article-title":"Epigenetics of delirium and aging: potential role of dna methylation change on cytokine genes in glia and blood along with aging","volume":"10","author":"Shinozaki G","year":"2018","unstructured":"Shinozaki G, Braun PR, Hing BW, et al.. Epigenetics of delirium and aging: potential role of dna methylation change on cytokine genes in glia and blood along with aging. Front Aging Neurosci. 2018, 10:311. 10.3389\/fnagi.2018.00311","journal-title":"Front Aging Neurosci"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/bja\/aep291","article-title":"Postoperative delirium and cognitive dysfunction","volume":"103 Suppl 1","author":"Deiner S","year":"2009","unstructured":"Deiner S, Silverstein JH. Postoperative delirium and cognitive dysfunction. Br J Anaesth. 2009, 103 Suppl 1:i41-46. 10.1093\/bja\/aep291","journal-title":"Br J Anaesth"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bja.2022.07.054","article-title":"Functional brain network and trail making test changes following major surgery and postoperative delirium: a prospective, multicentre, observational cohort study","volume":"130","author":"Ditzel FL","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ditzel FL, van Montfort SJ, Vernooij LM, et al.. Functional brain network and trail making test changes following major surgery and postoperative delirium: a prospective, multicentre, observational cohort study. Br J Anaesth. 2023, 130:e281-8. 10.1016\/j.bja.2022.07.054","journal-title":"Br J Anaesth"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2015.02.024","article-title":"Brain atrophy and white-matter hyperintensities are not significantly associated with incidence and severity of postoperative delirium in older persons without dementia","volume":"36","author":"Cavallari M","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cavallari M, Hshieh TT, Guttmann CR, et al.. Brain atrophy and white-matter hyperintensities are not significantly associated with incidence and severity of postoperative delirium in older persons without dementia. Neurobiol Aging. 2015, 36:2122-9. 10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2015.02.024","journal-title":"Neurobiol Aging"},{"key":"ref30","article-title":"Postoperative Delirium","author":"Janjua MS","year":"2024","unstructured":"Janjua MS, Spurling BC, Arthur ME. Postoperative Delirium. StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island, FL; 2024."},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcorm.2024.100401","article-title":"Bridging the gaps in understanding POD and POCD: a thorough examination of genetic and clinical biomarkers","volume":"35","author":"Figueiredo S","year":"2024","unstructured":"Figueiredo S, Devezas M. Bridging the gaps in understanding POD and POCD: a thorough examination of genetic and clinical biomarkers. Perioper Care Oper. Room Manag. 2024, 35:100401. 10.1016\/j.pcorm.2024.100401","journal-title":"Perioper Care Oper. Room Manag"},{"key":"ref32","article-title":"The association between diabetes mellitus and Depression","volume":"9","author":"B\u0103descu S","year":"2016","unstructured":"B\u0103descu S, T\u0103taru C, Kobylinska L, Georgescu E, Zahiu D, Z\u0103grean A, Z\u0103grean L. The association between diabetes mellitus and Depression . J Med Life. 2016, 9:120-5.","journal-title":"J Med Life"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-019-1280-2","article-title":"Anticholinergic and benzodiazepine medication use and risk of incident dementia: a UK cohort study","volume":"19","author":"Grossi CM","year":"2019","unstructured":"Grossi CM, Richardson K, Fox C, et al.. Anticholinergic and benzodiazepine medication use and risk of incident dementia: a UK cohort study. BMC Geriatr. 2019, 19:276. 10.1186\/s12877-019-1280-2","journal-title":"BMC Geriatr"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2147\/JMDH.S431168","article-title":"Incidence and factors related to prolonged postoperative cognitive decline (pocd) in elderly patients following surgery and anaesthesia: a systematic review","volume":"16","author":"Arefayne NR","year":"2023","unstructured":"Arefayne NR, Berhe YW, van Zundert AA. Incidence and factors related to prolonged postoperative cognitive decline (pocd) in elderly patients following surgery and anaesthesia: a systematic review. J Multidiscip Healthc. 2023, 16:3405-13. 10.2147\/JMDH.S431168","journal-title":"J Multidiscip Healthc"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9103183","article-title":"Investigating association between intraoperative hypotension and postoperative neurocognitive disorders in non-cardiac surgery: a comprehensive review","volume":"9","author":"Krzych \u0141J","year":"2020","unstructured":"Krzych \u0141J, Pluta MP, Putowski Z, Czok M. Investigating association between intraoperative hypotension and postoperative neurocognitive disorders in non-cardiac surgery: a comprehensive review. J Clin Med. 2020, 9:3183. 10.3390\/jcm9103183","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0000000000002729","article-title":"Postoperative delirium and postoperative cognitive dysfunction: overlap and divergence","volume":"131","author":"Daiello LA","year":"2019","unstructured":"Daiello LA, Racine AM, Yun Gou R, et al.. Postoperative delirium and postoperative cognitive dysfunction: overlap and divergence. Anesthesiology. 2019, 131:477-91. 10.1097\/ALN.0000000000002729","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref37","article-title":"Differentiating Delirium Versus Dementia in the Elderly","author":"Gogia B","year":"2024","unstructured":"Gogia B, Fang X. Differentiating Delirium Versus Dementia in the Elderly. StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island, FL; 2024."},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/SPC.0000000000000062","article-title":"Delirium diagnosis, screening and management","volume":"8","author":"Lawlor PG","year":"2014","unstructured":"Lawlor PG, Bush SH. Delirium diagnosis, screening and management. Curr Opin Support Palliat Care. 2014, 8:286-95. 10.1097\/SPC.0000000000000062","journal-title":"Curr Opin Support Palliat Care"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2023.1293153","article-title":"Preoperative cognitive training improves postoperative cognitive function: a meta-analysis and systematic review of randomized controlled trials","volume":"14","author":"Zhao L","year":"2023","unstructured":"Zhao L, Guo Y, Zhou X, Mao W, Li L. Preoperative cognitive training improves postoperative cognitive function: a meta-analysis and systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Front Neurol. 2023, 14:1293153. 10.3389\/fneur.2023.1293153","journal-title":"Front Neurol"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/sja.sja_583_23","article-title":"Preoperative optimization: physical and cognitive pre-habilitation and management of chronic medication","volume":"17","author":"Trottier M","year":"2023","unstructured":"Trottier M, Carli F. Preoperative optimization: physical and cognitive pre-habilitation and management of chronic medication. Saudi J Anaesth. 2023, 17:500-8. 10.4103\/sja.sja_583_23","journal-title":"Saudi J Anaesth"},{"key":"ref41","article-title":"Geriatric Cognitive Decline and Polypharmacy","author":"Chippa V","year":"2024","unstructured":"Chippa V, Roy K. Geriatric Cognitive Decline and Polypharmacy. StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island, FL; 2024."},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12871-020-01096-6","article-title":"Preoperative assessment of cognitive function and risk assessment of cognitive impairment in elderly patients with orthopedics: a cross-sectional study","volume":"20","author":"Gan S","year":"2020","unstructured":"Gan S, Yu Y, Wu J, Tang X, Zheng Y, Wang M, Zhu S. Preoperative assessment of cognitive function and risk assessment of cognitive impairment in elderly patients with orthopedics: a cross-sectional study. BMC Anesthesiol. 2020, 20:189. 10.1186\/s12871-020-01096-6","journal-title":"BMC Anesthesiol"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.34172\/jcs.2020.012","article-title":"Family\u2019s supportive behaviors in the care of the patient admitted to the cardiac care unit: a qualitative study","volume":"9","author":"Babaei S","year":"2020","unstructured":"Babaei S, Abolhasani S. Family\u2019s supportive behaviors in the care of the patient admitted to the cardiac care unit: a qualitative study. J Caring Sci. 2020, 9:80-6. 10.34172\/jcs.2020.012","journal-title":"J Caring Sci"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12247576","article-title":"The impact of regional nerve blocks on postoperative delirium or cognitive dysfunction following thoracic surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"Kim SY","year":"2023","unstructured":"Kim SY, Lee J, Na HS, Koo BW, Lee KO, Shin HJ. The impact of regional nerve blocks on postoperative delirium or cognitive dysfunction following thoracic surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Med. 2023, 12:7576. 10.3390\/jcm12247576","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"ref45","article-title":"Hypoxia","author":"Bhutta BS","year":"2024","unstructured":"Bhutta BS, Alghoula F, Berim I. Hypoxia. StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island, FL; 2024."},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4274\/TJAR.2023.231420","article-title":"Precision anaesthesia: advancing patient-centered precision care through repetitive assessment of proms with the safe brain initiative approach","volume":"51","author":"Me\u00e7o BC","year":"2023","unstructured":"Me\u00e7o BC, de Agua Reis AB, Berger-Estilita J, Jakobsen K, Alk\u0131\u015f N, Radtke FM. Precision anaesthesia: advancing patient-centered precision care through repetitive assessment of proms with the safe brain initiative approach. Turk J Anaesthesiol Reanim. 2023, 51:374-9. 10.4274\/TJAR.2023.231420","journal-title":"Turk J Anaesthesiol Reanim"},{"key":"ref47","article-title":"Early Mobilization for Patients with Venous Thromboembolism: A Review of Clinical Effectiveness and Guidelines","author":"Chatsis V","year":"2018","unstructured":"Chatsis V, Visintini S. Early Mobilization for Patients with Venous Thromboembolism: A Review of Clinical Effectiveness and Guidelines. Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health, Ottawa, Canada; 2018."},{"key":"ref48","unstructured":"What is passive range of motion?. (2023). Accessed. August 26, 2024: https:\/\/www.healthline.com\/health\/passive-range-of-motion."},{"key":"ref49","article-title":"WHO Analgesic Ladder","author":"Anekar AA","year":"2024","unstructured":"Anekar AA, Hendrix JM, Cascella M. WHO Analgesic Ladder. StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island, FL; 2024."},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD013307.pub2","article-title":"Non-pharmacological interventions for preventing delirium in hospitalised non-ICU patients","volume":"7","author":"Burton JK","year":"2021","unstructured":"Burton JK, Craig LE, Yong SQ, et al.. Non-pharmacological interventions for preventing delirium in hospitalised non-ICU patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2021, 7:CD013307. 10.1002\/14651858.CD013307.pub2","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/s21072398","article-title":"Improving stress management and sleep hygiene in intelligent homes","volume":"21","author":"Leonidis A","year":"2021","unstructured":"Leonidis A, Korozi M, Sykianaki E, et al.. Improving stress management and sleep hygiene in intelligent homes. Sensors (Basel). 2021, 21:2398. 10.3390\/s21072398","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"},{"key":"ref52","article-title":"Haloperidol","author":"Rahman S","year":"2024","unstructured":"Rahman S, Marwaha R. Haloperidol. StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island, FL; 2024."},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1185\/030079906X167372","article-title":"Rivastigmine treatment as an add-on to antipsychotics in patients with schizophrenia and cognitive deficits","volume":"23","author":"Chouinard S","year":"2007","unstructured":"Chouinard S, Stip E, Poulin J, Melun JP, Godbout R, Guillem F, Cohen H. Rivastigmine treatment as an add-on to antipsychotics in patients with schizophrenia and cognitive deficits. Curr Med Res Opin. 2007, 23:575-83. 10.1185\/030079906X167372","journal-title":"Curr Med Res Opin"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.20567","article-title":"Management of common adverse effects of antipsychotic medications","volume":"17","author":"Stroup TS","year":"2018","unstructured":"Stroup TS, Gray N. Management of common adverse effects of antipsychotic medications. World Psychiatry. 2018, 17:341-56. 10.1002\/wps.20567","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD005562.pub3","article-title":"Cognitive stimulation to improve cognitive functioning in people with dementia","volume":"2023","author":"Woods B","year":"2023","unstructured":"Woods B, Rai HK, Elliott E, Aguirre E, Orrell M, Spector A. Cognitive stimulation to improve cognitive functioning in people with dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2023, 2023:CD005562. 10.1002\/14651858.CD005562.pub3","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4266\/acc.2021.00556","article-title":"Association of natural light exposure and delirium according to the presence or absence of windows in the intensive care unit","volume":"36","author":"Lee HJ","year":"2021","unstructured":"Lee HJ, Bae E, Lee HY, Lee SM, Lee J. Association of natural light exposure and delirium according to the presence or absence of windows in the intensive care unit. Acute Crit Care. 2021, 36:332-41. 10.4266\/acc.2021.00556","journal-title":"Acute Crit Care"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pecinn.2023.100156","article-title":"Delirium education for family caregivers of patients in the intensive care unit: a pilot study","volume":"2","author":"Wheeler A","year":"2023","unstructured":"Wheeler A, Bloch E, Blaylock S, et al.. Delirium education for family caregivers of patients in the intensive care unit: a pilot study. PEC Innov. 2023, 2:100156. 10.1016\/j.pecinn.2023.100156","journal-title":"PEC Innov"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/JAHA.122.025859","article-title":"Engaging families in adult cardiovascular care: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association","volume":"11","author":"Goldfarb MJ","year":"2022","unstructured":"Goldfarb MJ, Bechtel C, Capers Q 4th, et al.. Engaging families in adult cardiovascular care: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. J Am Heart Assoc. 2022, 11:e025859. 10.1161\/JAHA.122.025859","journal-title":"J Am Heart Assoc"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-020-01624-x","article-title":"Perioperative Management of Elderly patients (PriME): recommendations from an Italian intersociety consensus","volume":"32","author":"Aceto P","year":"2020","unstructured":"Aceto P, Antonelli Incalzi R, Bettelli G, et al.. Perioperative Management of Elderly patients (PriME): recommendations from an Italian intersociety consensus. Aging Clin Exp Res. 2020, 32:1647-73. 10.1007\/s40520-020-01624-x","journal-title":"Aging Clin Exp Res"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjoq-2022-001873","article-title":"Cognitive impairment and frailty screening in older surgical patients: a rural tertiary care centre experience","volume":"11","author":"Andrew CD","year":"2022","unstructured":"Andrew CD, Fleischer C, Charette K, et al.. Cognitive impairment and frailty screening in older surgical patients: a rural tertiary care centre experience. BMJ Open Qual. 2022, 11:001873. 10.1136\/bmjoq-2022-001873","journal-title":"BMJ Open Qual"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16101453","article-title":"Taming postoperative delirium with dexmedetomidine: a review of the therapeutic agent\u2019s neuroprotective effects following surgery","volume":"16","author":"Bargnes V 3rd","year":"2023","unstructured":"Bargnes V 3rd, Oliver B, Wang E, Greenspan S, Jin Z, Yeung I, Bergese S. Taming postoperative delirium with dexmedetomidine: a review of the therapeutic agent\u2019s neuroprotective effects following surgery. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2023, 16:1453. 10.3390\/ph16101453","journal-title":"Pharmaceuticals (Basel)"},{"key":"ref62","article-title":"Delirium (Nursing)","author":"Ram\u00edrez Echeverr\u00eda MD","year":"2024","unstructured":"Ram\u00edrez Echeverr\u00eda MD, Schoo C, Paul M, Doerr C. Delirium (Nursing). StatPearls [Internet], StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island, FL; 2024."},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0b013e3182147f6d","article-title":"Review articles: postoperative delirium: acute change with long-term implications","volume":"112","author":"Rudolph JL","year":"2011","unstructured":"Rudolph JL, Marcantonio ER. Review articles: postoperative delirium: acute change with long-term implications. Anesth Analg. 2011, 112:1202-11. 10.1213\/ANE.0b013e3182147f6d","journal-title":"Anesth Analg"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fcvm.2022.884144","article-title":"Outcomes of postoperative delirium in patients undergoing cardiac surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"9","author":"Lin L","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lin L, Zhang X, Xu S, et al.. Outcomes of postoperative delirium in patients undergoing cardiac surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Cardiovasc Med. 2022, 9:884144. 10.3389\/fcvm.2022.884144","journal-title":"Front Cardiovasc Med"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12123897","article-title":"Delirium in medically hospitalized patients: prevalence, recognition and risk factors: a prospective cohort study","volume":"12","author":"Al Farsi RS","year":"2023","unstructured":"Al Farsi RS, Al Alawi AM, Al Huraizi AR, Al-Saadi T, Al-Hamadani N, Al Zeedy K, Al-Maqbali JS. Delirium in medically hospitalized patients: prevalence, recognition and risk factors: a prospective cohort study. J Clin Med. 2023, 12:3897. 10.3390\/jcm12123897","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18332\/tid\/162366","article-title":"Pod-based e-cigarettes versus combustible cigarettes: the impact on peripheral and cerebral vascular function and subjective experiences","volume":"21","author":"Ben Taleb Z","year":"2023","unstructured":"Ben Taleb Z, Dabroy D, Akins J, Nelson MD, Kalan ME, Rezk-Hanna M, Brothers RM. Pod-based e-cigarettes versus combustible cigarettes: the impact on peripheral and cerebral vascular function and subjective experiences. Tob Induc Dis. 2023, 21:71. 10.18332\/tid\/162366","journal-title":"Tob Induc Dis"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13030521","article-title":"Preventive strategies for cognitive decline and dementia: benefits of aerobic physical activity, especially open-skill exercise","volume":"13","author":"Yamasaki T","year":"2023","unstructured":"Yamasaki T. Preventive strategies for cognitive decline and dementia: benefits of aerobic physical activity, especially open-skill exercise. Brain Sci. 2023, 13:521. 10.3390\/brainsci13030521","journal-title":"Brain Sci"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/diagnostics14060587","article-title":"Evaluating novel biomarkers for personalized medicine","volume":"14","author":"Drugan T","year":"2024","unstructured":"Drugan T, Leucu\u021ba D. Evaluating novel biomarkers for personalized medicine. Diagnostics (Basel). 2024, 14:587. 10.3390\/diagnostics14060587","journal-title":"Diagnostics (Basel)"}],"container-title":["Cureus"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/295380-postoperative-delirium-and-neurocognitive-disorders-a-comprehensive-review-of-pathophysiology-risk-factors-and-management-strategies","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,3]],"date-time":"2024-09-03T01:21:12Z","timestamp":1725326472000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/295380-postoperative-delirium-and-neurocognitive-disorders-a-comprehensive-review-of-pathophysiology-risk-factors-and-management-strategies"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,2]]},"references-count":68,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7759\/cureus.68492","relation":{},"ISSN":["2168-8184"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2168-8184","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,2]]}}}