{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T07:36:04Z","timestamp":1789025764591,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"Springer Science and Business Media LLC","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]]},"DOI":"10.7759\/cureus.90712","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T07:29:01Z","timestamp":1755847741000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Diabetes Mellitus and the Prostate: The Odd Pairing"],"prefix":"10.7759","author":[{"given":"Mohamad","family":"Fleifel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrew","family":"El Alam","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"297","reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1089\/152091501300209633","article-title":"The relation of type 2 diabetes and cancer","volume":"3","author":"Strickler HD","year":"2001","unstructured":"Strickler HD, Wylie-Rosett J, Rohan T, Hoover DR, Smoller S, Burk RD, Yu H. The relation of type 2 diabetes and cancer. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2001, 3:263-74. 10.1089\/152091501300209633","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol Ther"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/dc10-0666","article-title":"Diabetes and cancer: a consensus report","volume":"33","author":"Giovannucci E","year":"2010","unstructured":"Giovannucci E, Harlan DM, Archer MC, et al.. Diabetes and cancer: a consensus report. Diabetes Care. 2010, 33:1674-85. 10.2337\/dc10-0666","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oraloncology.2015.01.003","article-title":"Type 2 diabetes mellitus and risk of oral cancer and precancerous lesions: a meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"51","author":"Gong Y","year":"2015","unstructured":"Gong Y, Wei B, Yu L, Pan W. Type 2 diabetes mellitus and risk of oral cancer and precancerous lesions: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Oral Oncol. 2015, 51:332-40. 10.1016\/j.oraloncology.2015.01.003","journal-title":"Oral Oncol"},{"key":"ref4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.6605","article-title":"Diabetes mellitus and the risk of glioma: a meta-analysis","volume":"7","author":"Zhao L","year":"2016","unstructured":"Zhao L, Zheng Z, Huang P. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of glioma: a meta-analysis. Oncotarget. 2016, 7:4483-9. 10.18632\/oncotarget.6605","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/bjc.2012.414","article-title":"Diabetes and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis","volume":"107","author":"Boyle P","year":"2012","unstructured":"Boyle P, Boniol M, Koechlin A, et al.. Diabetes and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer. 2012, 107:1608-17. 10.1038\/bjc.2012.414","journal-title":"Br J Cancer"},{"key":"ref6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.g7607","article-title":"Type 2 diabetes and cancer: umbrella review of meta-analyses of observational studies","volume":"350","author":"Tsilidis KK","year":"2015","unstructured":"Tsilidis KK, Kasimis JC, Lopez DS, Ntzani EE, Ioannidis JP. Type 2 diabetes and cancer: umbrella review of meta-analyses of observational studies. BMJ. 2015, 350:7607. 10.1136\/bmj.g7607","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1008862","article-title":"Diabetes mellitus, fasting glucose, and risk of cause-specific death","volume":"364","author":"Rao Kondapally Seshasai S","year":"2011","unstructured":"Rao Kondapally Seshasai S, Kaptoge S, Thompson A, et al.. Diabetes mellitus, fasting glucose, and risk of cause-specific death. N Engl J Med. 2011, 364:829-41. 10.1056\/NEJMoa1008862","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"ref8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.85.3.6400","article-title":"The intracellular mechanism of insulin resistance in pancreatic cancer patients","volume":"85","author":"Liu J","year":"2000","unstructured":"Liu J, Knezetic JA, Str\u00f6mmer L, Permert J, Larsson J, Adrian TE. The intracellular mechanism of insulin resistance in pancreatic cancer patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000, 85:1232-8. 10.1210\/jcem.85.3.6400","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1002\/1520-6866(2001)21:1<59::AID-TCM6>3.0.CO;2-V","article-title":"Early changes in islet hormone secretion in the hamster pancreatic cancer model","volume":"21","author":"Permert J","year":"2001","unstructured":"Permert J, Herrington M, Kazakoff K, Pour PM, Adrian TE. Early changes in islet hormone secretion in the hamster pancreatic cancer model. Teratog Carcinog Mutagen. 2001, 21:59-67.","journal-title":"Teratog Carcinog Mutagen"},{"key":"ref10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1159\/000085276","article-title":"Beta-cell function and insulin resistance evaluated by HOMA in pancreatic cancer subjects with varying degrees of glucose intolerance","volume":"5","author":"Chari ST","year":"2005","unstructured":"Chari ST, Zapiach M, Yadav D, Rizza RA. Beta-cell function and insulin resistance evaluated by HOMA in pancreatic cancer subjects with varying degrees of glucose intolerance. Pancreatology. 2005, 5:229-33. 10.1159\/000085276","journal-title":"Pancreatology"},{"key":"ref11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2010-1319","article-title":"Insulin-induced oxidative stress up-regulates heme oxygenase-1 via diverse signaling cascades in the C2 skeletal myoblast cell line","volume":"152","author":"Aggeli IK","year":"2011","unstructured":"Aggeli IK, Theofilatos D, Beis I, Gaitanaki C. Insulin-induced oxidative stress up-regulates heme oxygenase-1 via diverse signaling cascades in the C2 skeletal myoblast cell line. Endocrinology. 2011, 152:1274-83. 10.1210\/en.2010-1319","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI31537","article-title":"A cytokine-mediated link between innate immunity, inflammation, and cancer","volume":"117","author":"Lin WW","year":"2007","unstructured":"Lin WW, Karin M. A cytokine-mediated link between innate immunity, inflammation, and cancer. J Clin Invest. 2007, 117:1175-83. 10.1172\/JCI31537","journal-title":"J Clin Invest"},{"key":"ref13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/bjc.2014.150","article-title":"Does cancer risk increase with HbA1c, independent of diabetes?","volume":"110","author":"de Beer JC","year":"2014","unstructured":"de Beer JC, Liebenberg L. Does cancer risk increase with HbA1c, independent of diabetes?. Br J Cancer. 2014, 110:2361-8. 10.1038\/bjc.2014.150","journal-title":"Br J Cancer"},{"key":"ref14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1160809","article-title":"Understanding the Warburg effect: the metabolic requirements of cell proliferation","volume":"324","author":"Vander Heiden MG","year":"2009","unstructured":"Vander Heiden MG, Cantley LC, Thompson CB. Understanding the Warburg effect: the metabolic requirements of cell proliferation. Science. 2009, 324:1029-33. 10.1126\/science.1160809","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7150\/jca.14274","article-title":"Warburg effect - a consequence or the cause of carcinogenesis?","volume":"7","author":"Devic S","year":"2016","unstructured":"Devic S. Warburg effect - a consequence or the cause of carcinogenesis?. J Cancer. 2016, 7:817-22. 10.7150\/jca.14274","journal-title":"J Cancer"},{"key":"ref16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/a:1008822917449","article-title":"Diabetes mellitus and risk of prostate cancer (United States)","volume":"9","author":"Giovannucci E","year":"1998","unstructured":"Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Diabetes mellitus and risk of prostate cancer (United States). Cancer Causes Control. 1998, 9:3-9. 10.1023\/a:1008822917449","journal-title":"Cancer Causes Control"},{"key":"ref17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm11226762","article-title":"Diabetes and the prostate: elevated fasting glucose, insulin resistance and higher levels of adrenal steroids in prostate cancer","volume":"11","author":"Lutz SZ","year":"2022","unstructured":"Lutz SZ, Hennenlotter J, Franko A, et al.. Diabetes and the prostate: elevated fasting glucose, insulin resistance and higher levels of adrenal steroids in prostate cancer. J Clin Med. 2022, 11:6762. 10.3390\/jcm11226762","journal-title":"J Clin Med"},{"key":"ref18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/dc14-1996","article-title":"Cancer risk among people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes: disentangling true associations, detection bias, and reverse causation","volume":"38","author":"Harding JL","year":"2015","unstructured":"Harding JL, Shaw JE, Peeters A, Cartensen B, Magliano DJ. Cancer risk among people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes: disentangling true associations, detection bias, and reverse causation. Diabetes Care. 2015, 38:264-70. 10.2337\/dc14-1996","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/07435800.2014.934961","article-title":"Diabetes mellitus and the risk of prostate cancer: an update and cumulative meta-analysis","volume":"40","author":"Jian Gang P","year":"2015","unstructured":"Jian Gang P, Mo L, Lu Y, Runqi L, Xing Z. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of prostate cancer: an update and cumulative meta-analysis. Endocr Res. 2015, 40:54-61. 10.3109\/07435800.2014.934961","journal-title":"Endocr Res"},{"key":"ref20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.urolonc.2012.07.008","article-title":"Why are diabetics at reduced risk for prostate cancer? A review of the epidemiologic evidence","volume":"30","author":"Pierce BL","year":"2012","unstructured":"Pierce BL. Why are diabetics at reduced risk for prostate cancer? A review of the epidemiologic evidence. Urol Oncol. 2012, 30:735-43. 10.1016\/j.urolonc.2012.07.008","journal-title":"Urol Oncol"},{"key":"ref21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2009.09.042","article-title":"Why does diabetes offer protective effects against prostate cancer? The possible role of its microvascular complications","volume":"74","author":"Zhang W","year":"2010","unstructured":"Zhang W, Hu R. Why does diabetes offer protective effects against prostate cancer? The possible role of its microvascular complications. Med Hypotheses. 2010, 74:242-3. 10.1016\/j.mehy.2009.09.042","journal-title":"Med Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-008-1114-9","article-title":"A genetic link between type 2 diabetes and prostate cancer","volume":"51","author":"Frayling TM","year":"2008","unstructured":"Frayling TM, Colhoun H, Florez JC. A genetic link between type 2 diabetes and prostate cancer. Diabetologia. 2008, 51:1757-60. 10.1007\/s00125-008-1114-9","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwj311","article-title":"Prostate-specific antigen values in diabetic and nondiabetic US men, 2001-2002","volume":"164","author":"Werny DM","year":"2006","unstructured":"Werny DM, Saraiya M, Gregg EW. Prostate-specific antigen values in diabetic and nondiabetic US men, 2001-2002. Am J Epidemiol. 2006, 164:978-83. 10.1093\/aje\/kwj311","journal-title":"Am J Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4103\/npmj.npmj_174_17","article-title":"Serum level of prostate-specific antigen in diabetic patients in Basrah, Iraq","volume":"24","author":"Al-Asadi JN","year":"2017","unstructured":"Al-Asadi JN, Al-Naama LM, Abdul-Kareem MM, Mashkoor FC. Serum level of prostate-specific antigen in diabetic patients in Basrah, Iraq. Niger Postgrad Med J. 2017, 24:240-4. 10.4103\/npmj.npmj_174_17","journal-title":"Niger Postgrad Med J"},{"key":"ref25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2174\/1573399813666170117113519","article-title":"Prostate-specific antigen levels in Moroccan diabetic males: a cross-sectional study","volume":"14","author":"Ainahi A","year":"2018","unstructured":"Ainahi A, Brakat A, Wakrim L, Mohammadi H, ElMdaghri N, Ezzikouri S. Prostate-specific antigen levels in Moroccan diabetic males: a cross-sectional study. Curr Diabetes Rev. 2018, 14:286-90. 10.2174\/1573399813666170117113519","journal-title":"Curr Diabetes Rev"},{"key":"ref26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10147-019-01527-6","article-title":"Association between serum prostate-specific antigen level and diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and the laboratory parameters related to glucose tolerance, hepatic function, and lipid profile: implications for modification of prostate-specific antigen threshold","volume":"25","author":"Kobayashi M","year":"2020","unstructured":"Kobayashi M, Mizuno T, Yuki H, et al.. Association between serum prostate-specific antigen level and diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and the laboratory parameters related to glucose tolerance, hepatic function, and lipid profile: implications for modification of prostate-specific antigen threshold. Int J Clin Oncol. 2020, 25:472-8. 10.1007\/s10147-019-01527-6","journal-title":"Int J Clin Oncol"},{"key":"ref27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.298.19.2275","article-title":"Obesity-related plasma hemodilution and PSA concentration among men with prostate cancer","volume":"298","author":"Ba\u00f1ez LL","year":"2007","unstructured":"Ba\u00f1ez LL, Hamilton RJ, Partin AW, et al.. Obesity-related plasma hemodilution and PSA concentration among men with prostate cancer. JAMA. 2007, 298:2275-80. 10.1001\/jama.298.19.2275","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.28.7.1636","article-title":"Relationship between testosterone levels, insulin sensitivity, and mitochondrial function in men","volume":"28","author":"Pitteloud N","year":"2005","unstructured":"Pitteloud N, Mootha VK, Dwyer AA, et al.. Relationship between testosterone levels, insulin sensitivity, and mitochondrial function in men. Diabetes Care. 2005, 28:1636-42. 10.2337\/diacare.28.7.1636","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/pcan.2012.40","article-title":"Type 2 diabetes and risk of prostate cancer: a meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"16","author":"Bansal D","year":"2013","unstructured":"Bansal D, Bhansali A, Kapil G, Undela K, Tiwari P. Type 2 diabetes and risk of prostate cancer: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2013, 16:151-8. 10.1038\/pcan.2012.40","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis"},{"key":"ref30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7314\/apjcp.2012.13.8.4097","article-title":"Diabetes mellitus and prostate cancer risk in Asian countries: a meta-analysis","volume":"13","author":"Long XJ","year":"2012","unstructured":"Long XJ, Lin S, Sun YN, Zheng ZF. Diabetes mellitus and prostate cancer risk in Asian countries: a meta-analysis. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2012, 13:4097-100. 10.7314\/apjcp.2012.13.8.4097","journal-title":"Asian Pac J Cancer Prev"},{"key":"ref31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.26420","article-title":"The impact of type 2 diabetes mellitus on cancer-specific survival: a follow-up study in Sweden","volume":"118","author":"Liu X","year":"2012","unstructured":"Liu X, Ji J, Sundquist K, Sundquist J, Hemminki K. The impact of type 2 diabetes mellitus on cancer-specific survival: a follow-up study in Sweden. Cancer. 2012, 118:1353-61. 10.1002\/cncr.26420","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s40064-016-3233-y","article-title":"Diabetes and mortality in patients with prostate cancer: a meta-analysis","volume":"5","author":"Lee J","year":"2016","unstructured":"Lee J, Giovannucci E, Jeon JY. Diabetes and mortality in patients with prostate cancer: a meta-analysis. Springerplus. 2016, 5:1548. 10.1186\/s40064-016-3233-y","journal-title":"Springerplus"},{"key":"ref33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.2582","article-title":"Diabetes mellitus is associated with elevated risk of mortality amongst patients with prostate cancer: a meta-analysis of 11 cohort studies","volume":"31","author":"Cai H","year":"2015","unstructured":"Cai H, Xu Z, Xu T, Yu B, Zou Q. Diabetes mellitus is associated with elevated risk of mortality amongst patients with prostate cancer: a meta-analysis of 11 cohort studies. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2015, 31:336-43. 10.1002\/dmrr.2582","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab Res Rev"},{"key":"ref34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/pcan.2009.39","article-title":"Does pre-existing diabetes affect prostate cancer prognosis? A systematic review","volume":"13","author":"Snyder CF","year":"2010","unstructured":"Snyder CF, Stein KB, Barone BB, et al.. Does pre-existing diabetes affect prostate cancer prognosis? A systematic review. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2010, 13:58-64. 10.1038\/pcan.2009.39","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis"},{"key":"ref35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.21642","article-title":"Hyperglycemia and insulin resistance in men with prostate carcinoma who receive androgen-deprivation therapy","volume":"106","author":"Basaria S","year":"2006","unstructured":"Basaria S, Muller DC, Carducci MA, Egan J, Dobs AS. Hyperglycemia and insulin resistance in men with prostate carcinoma who receive androgen-deprivation therapy. Cancer. 2006, 106:581-8. 10.1002\/cncr.21642","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/jdi.12472","article-title":"Androgen deprivation therapy is associated with diabetes: evidence from meta-analysis","volume":"7","author":"Wang H","year":"2016","unstructured":"Wang H, Sun X, Zhao L, Chen X, Zhao J. Androgen deprivation therapy is associated with diabetes: evidence from meta-analysis. J Diabetes Investig. 2016, 7:629-36. 10.1111\/jdi.12472","journal-title":"J Diabetes Investig"},{"key":"ref37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.pcan.4500221","article-title":"Components of the metabolic syndrome-risk factors for the development of benign prostatic hyperplasia","volume":"1","author":"Hammarsten J","year":"1998","unstructured":"Hammarsten J, H\u00f6gstedt B, Holthuis N, Mellstr\u00f6m D. Components of the metabolic syndrome-risk factors for the development of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 1998, 1:157-62. 10.1038\/sj.pcan.4500221","journal-title":"Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis"},{"key":"ref38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/nau.20422","article-title":"Bladder dysfunction in type 2 diabetic patients","volume":"26","author":"Kebapci N","year":"2007","unstructured":"Kebapci N, Yenilmez A, Efe B, Entok E, Demirustu C. Bladder dysfunction in type 2 diabetic patients. Neurourol Urodyn. 2007, 26:814-9. 10.1002\/nau.20422","journal-title":"Neurourol Urodyn"},{"key":"ref39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005392-199502000-00013","article-title":"Urodynamic findings in patients with diabetic cystopathy","volume":"153","author":"Kaplan SA","year":"1995","unstructured":"Kaplan SA, Te AE, Blaivas JG. Urodynamic findings in patients with diabetic cystopathy. J Urol. 1995, 153:342-4. 10.1097\/00005392-199502000-00013","journal-title":"J Urol"},{"key":"ref40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.28.1.177","article-title":"Urologic complications of diabetes","volume":"28","author":"Brown JS","year":"2005","unstructured":"Brown JS, Wessells H, Chancellor MB, et al.. Urologic complications of diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2005, 28:177-85. 10.2337\/diacare.28.1.177","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5489\/cuaj.7489","article-title":"The association of new-onset diabetes mellitus and medical therapy for benign prostatic hyperplasia: a population-based study","volume":"15","author":"Johnstone J","year":"2021","unstructured":"Johnstone J, Lusty A, Tohidi M, Whitehead M, Tranmer J, Nickel JC, Siemens DR. The association of new-onset diabetes mellitus and medical therapy for benign prostatic hyperplasia: a population-based study. Can Urol Assoc J. 2021, 15:240-6. 10.5489\/cuaj.7489","journal-title":"Can Urol Assoc J"},{"key":"ref42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.23097","article-title":"5-alpha-reductase inhibitors and the risk of diabetes mellitus: a nationwide population-based study","volume":"76","author":"Lee SS","year":"2016","unstructured":"Lee SS, Yang YW, Tsai TH, Kuo YH, Chuang HY, Lee CC, Hsieh TF. 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors and the risk of diabetes mellitus: a nationwide population-based study. Prostate. 2016, 76:41-7. 10.1002\/pros.23097","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.l1204","article-title":"Incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in men receiving steroid 5\u03b1-reductase inhibitors: population based cohort study","volume":"365","author":"Wei L","year":"2019","unstructured":"Wei L, Lai EC, Kao-Yang YH, Walker BR, MacDonald TM, Andrew R. Incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus in men receiving steroid 5\u03b1-reductase inhibitors: population based cohort study. BMJ. 2019, 365:1204. 10.1136\/bmj.l1204","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2005.04.005","article-title":"Clinical efficacy and tolerability of alpha-blocker doxazosin as add-on therapy in patients with hypertension and impaired glucose metabolism","volume":"16","author":"Pessina AC","year":"2006","unstructured":"Pessina AC, Ciccariello L, Perrone F, Stoico V, Gussoni G, Scotti A, Muggeo M. Clinical efficacy and tolerability of alpha-blocker doxazosin as add-on therapy in patients with hypertension and impaired glucose metabolism. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2006, 16:137-47. 10.1016\/j.numecd.2005.04.005","journal-title":"Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis"},{"key":"ref45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2006.01.019","article-title":"Hyperinsulinemia and dyslipidemia in non-diabetic benign prostatic hyperplasia","volume":"370","author":"Nandeesha H","year":"2006","unstructured":"Nandeesha H, Koner BC, Dorairajan LN, Sen SK. Hyperinsulinemia and dyslipidemia in non-diabetic benign prostatic hyperplasia. Clin Chim Acta. 2006, 370:89-93. 10.1016\/j.cca.2006.01.019","journal-title":"Clin Chim Acta"},{"key":"ref46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2006.05.040","article-title":"The correlation between metabolic syndrome and prostatic growth in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia","volume":"51","author":"Ozden C","year":"2007","unstructured":"Ozden C, Ozdal OL, Urgancioglu G, Koyuncu H, Gokkaya S, Memis A. The correlation between metabolic syndrome and prostatic growth in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia. Eur Urol. 2007, 51:199-203. 10.1016\/j.eururo.2006.05.040","journal-title":"Eur Urol"},{"key":"ref47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1464-410x.2000.00597.x","article-title":"Expression and localization of basic fibroblast growth factor in diabetic rat prostate","volume":"85","author":"Wang Z","year":"2000","unstructured":"Wang Z, Ikeda K, Wada Y, Foster HE, Weiss RM, Latifpour J. Expression and localization of basic fibroblast growth factor in diabetic rat prostate. BJU Int. 2000, 85:945-52. 10.1046\/j.1464-410x.2000.00597.x","journal-title":"BJU Int"},{"key":"ref48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.81.11.8923874","article-title":"Epidermal growth factor, epidermal growth factor receptor, and transforming growth factor-alpha in human hyperplastic prostate tissue: expression and cellular localization","volume":"81","author":"De Bellis A","year":"1996","unstructured":"De Bellis A, Ghiandi P, Comerci A, et al.. Epidermal growth factor, epidermal growth factor receptor, and transforming growth factor-alpha in human hyperplastic prostate tissue: expression and cellular localization. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996, 81:4148-54. 10.1210\/jcem.81.11.8923874","journal-title":"J Clin Endocrinol Metab"},{"key":"ref49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.140.5.6702","article-title":"Androgen receptor up-regulates insulin-like growth factor binding protein-5 (IGFBP-5) expression in a human prostate cancer xenograft","volume":"140","author":"Gregory CW","year":"1999","unstructured":"Gregory CW, Kim D, Ye P, D'Ercole AJ, Pretlow TG, Mohler JL, French FS. Androgen receptor up-regulates insulin-like growth factor binding protein-5 (IGFBP-5) expression in a human prostate cancer xenograft. Endocrinology. 1999, 140:2372-81. 10.1210\/endo.140.5.6702","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00185974","article-title":"The insulin-like growth factor system in the prostate","volume":"13","author":"Peehl DM","year":"1995","unstructured":"Peehl DM, Cohen P, Rosenfeld RG. The insulin-like growth factor system in the prostate. World J Urol. 1995, 13:306-11. 10.1007\/BF00185974","journal-title":"World J Urol"},{"key":"ref51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1042\/BJ20150497","article-title":"Repurposing metformin: an old drug with new tricks in its binding pockets","volume":"471","author":"Pryor R","year":"2015","unstructured":"Pryor R, Cabreiro F. Repurposing metformin: an old drug with new tricks in its binding pockets. Biochem J. 2015, 471:307-22. 10.1042\/BJ20150497","journal-title":"Biochem J"},{"key":"ref52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.onc.1211024","article-title":"The antidiabetic drug metformin exerts an antitumoral effect in vitro and in vivo through a decrease of cyclin D1 level","volume":"27","author":"Ben Sahra I","year":"2008","unstructured":"Ben Sahra I, Laurent K, Loubat A, et al.. The antidiabetic drug metformin exerts an antitumoral effect in vitro and in vivo through a decrease of cyclin D1 level. Oncogene. 2008, 27:3576-86. 10.1038\/sj.onc.1211024","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/cddis.2014.59","article-title":"Metformin promotes autophagy and apoptosis in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma by downregulating Stat3 signaling","volume":"5","author":"Feng Y","year":"2014","unstructured":"Feng Y, Ke C, Tang Q, et al.. Metformin promotes autophagy and apoptosis in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma by downregulating Stat3 signaling. Cell Death Dis. 2014, 5:1088. 10.1038\/cddis.2014.59","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis"},{"key":"ref54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep02070","article-title":"Metformin impairs glucose consumption and survival in Calu-1 cells by direct inhibition of hexokinase-II","volume":"3","author":"Salani B","year":"2013","unstructured":"Salani B, Marini C, Rio AD, et al.. Metformin impairs glucose consumption and survival in Calu-1 cells by direct inhibition of hexokinase-II. Sci Rep. 2013, 3:2070. 10.1038\/srep02070","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"ref55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4161\/cc.26461","article-title":"Direct inhibition of hexokinase activity by metformin at least partially impairs glucose metabolism and tumor growth in experimental breast cancer","volume":"12","author":"Marini C","year":"2013","unstructured":"Marini C, Salani B, Massollo M, et al.. Direct inhibition of hexokinase activity by metformin at least partially impairs glucose metabolism and tumor growth in experimental breast cancer. Cell Cycle. 2013, 12:3490-9. 10.4161\/cc.26461","journal-title":"Cell Cycle"},{"key":"ref56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1447-0756.2011.01839.x","article-title":"Metformin sensitizes endometrial cancer cells to chemotherapy by repressing glyoxalase I expression","volume":"38","author":"Dong L","year":"2012","unstructured":"Dong L, Zhou Q, Zhang Z, Zhu Y, Duan T, Feng Y. Metformin sensitizes endometrial cancer cells to chemotherapy by repressing glyoxalase I expression. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 2012, 38:1077-85. 10.1111\/j.1447-0756.2011.01839.x","journal-title":"J Obstet Gynaecol Res"},{"key":"ref57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ccr.2013.02.015","article-title":"Targeting oxidative phosphorylation: why, when, and how","volume":"23","author":"Pollak M","year":"2013","unstructured":"Pollak M. Targeting oxidative phosphorylation: why, when, and how. Cancer Cell. 2013, 23:263-4. 10.1016\/j.ccr.2013.02.015","journal-title":"Cancer Cell"},{"key":"ref58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0219394","article-title":"The preventive effect of metformin on progression of benign prostate hyperplasia: a nationwide population-based cohort study in Korea","volume":"14","author":"Hong Y","year":"2019","unstructured":"Hong Y, Lee S, Won S. The preventive effect of metformin on progression of benign prostate hyperplasia: a nationwide population-based cohort study in Korea. PLoS One. 2019, 14:0219394. 10.1371\/journal.pone.0219394","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4236\/jct.2017.82007","article-title":"Statins and metformin use is associated with lower PSA levels in prostate cancer patients presenting for radiation therapy","volume":"8","author":"Liu X","year":"2017","unstructured":"Liu X, Li J, Schild SE, et al.. Statins and metformin use is associated with lower PSA levels in prostate cancer patients presenting for radiation therapy. J Cancer Ther. 2017, 8:73-85. 10.4236\/jct.2017.82007","journal-title":"J Cancer Ther"},{"key":"ref60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eururo.2013.12.057","article-title":"Metformin in chemotherapy-naive castration-resistant prostate cancer: a multicenter phase 2 trial (SAKK 08\/09)","volume":"66","author":"Rothermundt C","year":"2014","unstructured":"Rothermundt C, Hayoz S, Templeton AJ, et al.. Metformin in chemotherapy-naive castration-resistant prostate cancer: a multicenter phase 2 trial (SAKK 08\/09). Eur Urol. 2014, 66:468-74. 10.1016\/j.eururo.2013.12.057","journal-title":"Eur Urol"},{"key":"ref61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/CEJ.0000000000000394","article-title":"Bioactivity and prostate tissue distribution of metformin in a preprostatectomy prostate cancer cohort","volume":"27","author":"Nguyen MM","year":"2018","unstructured":"Nguyen MM, Martinez JA, Hsu CH, et al.. Bioactivity and prostate tissue distribution of metformin in a preprostatectomy prostate cancer cohort. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2018, 27:557-62. 10.1097\/CEJ.0000000000000394","journal-title":"Eur J Cancer Prev"},{"key":"ref62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/carcin\/bgt307","article-title":"Metformin targets c-MYC oncogene to prevent prostate cancer","volume":"34","author":"Akinyeke T","year":"2013","unstructured":"Akinyeke T, Matsumura S, Wang X, et al.. Metformin targets c-MYC oncogene to prevent prostate cancer. Carcinogenesis. 2013, 34:2823-32. 10.1093\/carcin\/bgt307","journal-title":"Carcinogenesis"},{"key":"ref63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0173335","article-title":"Metformin inhibits the proliferation of benign prostatic epithelial cells","volume":"12","author":"Wang Z","year":"2017","unstructured":"Wang Z, Xiao X, Ge R, Li J, Johnson CW, Rassoulian C, Olumi AF. Metformin inhibits the proliferation of benign prostatic epithelial cells. PLoS One. 2017, 12:0173335. 10.1371\/journal.pone.0173335","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15171\/apb.2019.001","article-title":"Metformin: ongoing journey with superdrug revolution","volume":"9","author":"El-Arabey AA","year":"2019","unstructured":"El-Arabey AA, Abdalla M, Ali Eltayb W. Metformin: ongoing journey with superdrug revolution. Adv Pharm Bull. 2019, 9:1-4. 10.15171\/apb.2019.001","journal-title":"Adv Pharm Bull"},{"key":"ref65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2022.106094","article-title":"Antidiabetic medications and the risk of prostate cancer in patients with diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"177","author":"Cui H","year":"2022","unstructured":"Cui H, Wang Y, Yang S, He G, Jiang Z, Gang X, Wang G. Antidiabetic medications and the risk of prostate cancer in patients with diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pharmacol Res. 2022, 177:106094. 10.1016\/j.phrs.2022.106094","journal-title":"Pharmacol Res"},{"key":"ref66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2337\/dc17-1825","article-title":"Neoplasms reported with liraglutide or placebo in people with type 2 diabetes: results from the leader randomized trial","volume":"41","author":"Nauck MA","year":"2018","unstructured":"Nauck MA, Jensen TJ, Rosenkilde C, Calanna S, Buse JB. Neoplasms reported with liraglutide or placebo in people with type 2 diabetes: results from the leader randomized trial. Diabetes Care. 2018, 41:1663-71. 10.2337\/dc17-1825","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0042-112368","article-title":"Glucagon-like peptide-1 analogues inhibit proliferation and increase apoptosis of human prostate cancer cells in vitro","volume":"125","author":"Li XN","year":"2017","unstructured":"Li XN, Bu HM, Ma XH, Lu S, Zhao S, Cui YL, Sun J. Glucagon-like peptide-1 analogues inhibit proliferation and increase apoptosis of human prostate cancer cells in vitro. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2017, 125:91-7. 10.1055\/s-0042-112368","journal-title":"Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes"},{"key":"ref68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0139709","article-title":"Combined treatment with exendin-4 and metformin attenuates prostate cancer growth","volume":"10","author":"Tsutsumi Y","year":"2015","unstructured":"Tsutsumi Y, Nomiyama T, Kawanami T, et al.. Combined treatment with exendin-4 and metformin attenuates prostate cancer growth. PLoS One. 2015, 10:0139709. 10.1371\/journal.pone.0139709","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.14689","article-title":"Association between antidiabetic medications and prostate-specific antigen levels and biopsy results","volume":"2","author":"Beckmann K","year":"2019","unstructured":"Beckmann K, Crawley D, Nordstr\u00f6m T, et al.. Association between antidiabetic medications and prostate-specific antigen levels and biopsy results. JAMA Netw Open. 2019, 2:1914689. 10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2019.14689","journal-title":"JAMA Netw Open"},{"key":"ref70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2015.02.003","article-title":"The risk of prostate cancer for men on aspirin, statin or antidiabetic medications","volume":"51","author":"Nordstr\u00f6m T","year":"2015","unstructured":"Nordstr\u00f6m T, Clements M, Karlsson R, Adolfsson J, Gr\u00f6nberg H. The risk of prostate cancer for men on aspirin, statin or antidiabetic medications. Eur J Cancer. 2015, 51:725-33. 10.1016\/j.ejca.2015.02.003","journal-title":"Eur J Cancer"},{"key":"ref71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annonc.2023.10.394","article-title":"268p comparisons of on new-onset prostate cancer in type 2 diabetes mellitus exposed to the SGLT2i and DPP4i: a population-based cohort study","volume":"34","author":"Chou HI","year":"2023","unstructured":"Chou HI, Lu L, Chung CT, et al.. 268p comparisons of on new-onset prostate cancer in type 2 diabetes mellitus exposed to the SGLT2i and DPP4i: a population-based cohort study. Ann Oncol. 2023, 34:1578. 10.1016\/j.annonc.2023.10.394","journal-title":"Ann Oncol"},{"key":"ref72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.110821","article-title":"Sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT-2) inhibition reduces glucose uptake to induce breast cancer cell growth arrest through AMPK\/mTOR pathway","volume":"132","author":"Zhou J","year":"2020","unstructured":"Zhou J, Zhu J, Yu SJ, et al.. Sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT-2) inhibition reduces glucose uptake to induce breast cancer cell growth arrest through AMPK\/mTOR pathway. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020, 132:110821. 10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.110821","journal-title":"Biomed Pharmacother"}],"container-title":["Cureus"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/398651-diabetes-mellitus-and-the-prostate-the-odd-pairing","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]],"date-time":"2025-08-22T07:29:03Z","timestamp":1755847743000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.cureus.com\/articles\/398651-diabetes-mellitus-and-the-prostate-the-odd-pairing"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]]},"references-count":72,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.7759\/cureus.90712","relation":{},"ISSN":["2168-8184"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2168-8184","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,22]]}}}