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Urbanisation causes changes to the size, connectivity, structure, and environmental parameters of their natural habitat. Due to a host of novel conditions and situations, high exploratory and risk-taking behaviours are beneficial traits to cope with urban environments. Therefore, we hypothesised that urban spiders should display more exploratory and risk-taking behaviour than their rural conspecifics. We tested 253 individuals of a widespread, forest-associated ground-dwelling wolf spider species,\n                    <jats:italic>Pardosa alacris<\/jats:italic>\n                    , sampled from rural and urban forest sites during their peak activity period, for their locomotory activity, exploratory and risk-taking behaviour by six frequently used behavioural measures. Combining the studied behavioural measures into composite scores using redundancy analysis, we identified two composite variables, the activity-exploration-boldness and the risk-taking behavioural ones. Behaviour measured by the composite activity-exploration-boldness score was significantly repeatable, but not the composite risk-taking behavioural one. There were no urbanisation-related differences in the composite behavioural scores, suggesting that higher exploratory or risk-taking behaviour may not yield fitness benefits in this generalist predator. We found, however, significant sex-specific differences in the composite activity-exploration-boldness behavioural scores. The higher activity, exploratory and boldness in males than females may be explained by their different life-history strategies and sex-specific selective pressures.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-026-41239-2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]],"date-time":"2026-03-05T12:34:51Z","timestamp":1772714091000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/springer_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Sex-specific but not urbanisation-related behavioural differences in a wolf spider, Pardosa alacris"],"prefix":"10.1038","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Tibor","family":"Magura","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Roland","family":"Horv\u00e1th","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Szabolcs","family":"Mizser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"M\u00e1ria","family":"T\u00f3th","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ferenc S\u00e1ndor","family":"Kozma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"G\u00e1bor L.","family":"L\u00f6vei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"41239_CR1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1038\/s42949-021-00018-w","volume":"1","author":"T Elmqvist","year":"2021","unstructured":"Elmqvist, T. et al. 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