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Given the highest sensitivity of vertically homogeneous                     clouds to aerosols that feed to cloud base, here CALIOP profile                     measurements were used for the first time to quantify cloud vertical                     homogeneity and estimate cloud <jats:italic>r<jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub><\/jats:italic> during                     both day and night. Comparison using simultaneous Aqua-MODIS                     measurements demonstrates that CALIOP retrieval has the highest                     accuracy for vertically homogeneous clouds, with R<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup> (MAE,                     RMSE) of 0.72 (1.75\u2005\u00b5m, 2.25\u2005\u00b5m), while                     the accuracy is lowest for non-homogeneous clouds, with R<jats:sup>2<\/jats:sup>                     (MAE, RMSE) of 0.60 (2.90\u2005\u00b5m, 3.70\u2005\u00b5m). The                     improved <jats:italic>r<jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub><\/jats:italic> retrieval in vertically                     homogeneous clouds provides a basis for possible breakthrough insights                     in ACI by CALIOP since <jats:italic>r<jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub><\/jats:italic> in such clouds                     reflects most directly aerosol effects on cloud properties. Global                     day-night maps of cloud vertical homogeneity and respective                     <jats:italic>r<jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub><\/jats:italic> are presented.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1364\/oe.427022","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,3]],"date-time":"2021-06-03T16:03:15Z","timestamp":1622736195000},"page":"21921","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1364\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["CALIOP retrieval of droplet effective radius accounting for cloud vertical homogeneity"],"prefix":"10.1364","volume":"29","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4546-8470","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Lin","family":"Zang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Wuhan University"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Rosenfeld","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wuhan University"},{"name":"The Hebrew University of Jerusalem"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7593-1860","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Feiyue","family":"Mao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wuhan University"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zengxin","family":"Pan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Hebrew University of Jerusalem"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yannian","family":"Zhu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nanjing University"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Gong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wuhan University"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zemin","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wuhan University"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"285","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"oe-29-14-21921-R1","author":"Church","year":"2013"},{"key":"oe-29-14-21921-R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1002\/2013RG000441","volume":"52","author":"Rosenfeld","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. 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This expression shows that the effective radius depends simultaneously upon the cloud liquid water content, droplet concentration and droplet spectral dispersion. It further suggests that the variability in these parameters present at all scales, due to turbulent mixing and secondary droplet activation, could limit the accuracy of the effective radius parameterizations used in climate models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1029\/92gl02283","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2008,2,6]],"date-time":"2008-02-06T16:40:42Z","timestamp":1202316042000},"page":"2227-2230","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["Contribution to the cloud droplet effective radius parameterization"],"prefix":"10.1029","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Constantin","family":"Pontikis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Hicks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,12,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1990)007<0666:EOTFSS>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1991)048<2367:ACPFCC>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-8095(92)90038-C"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-8095(89)90019-7"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00168069"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1990)047<1589:EAMPAR>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49711749712"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1991)008<0802:AMFVFM>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","volume-title":"Effective radii as related to entrainment and mixing in tropical warm convective clouds, Proc. llth ICCP","author":"Pontikis C. 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Many POLDER images of polarized light show cloudbow type features over cloud fields for scattering angles between 150 and 170\u00b0. This unexpected observation is attributed to the polarized radiance generated by single scattering by cloud droplets. It shows that, in many cases, the cloud droplet size distribution is very narrow. The multidirectional polarized radiance measurements can be inverted for an accurate estimate of the cloud droplet radius.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1029\/98gl01221","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,2,3]],"date-time":"2004-02-03T23:36:13Z","timestamp":1075851373000},"page":"1879-1882","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":142,"title":["Cloud droplet effective radius from spaceborne polarization measurements"],"prefix":"10.1029","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Fran\u00e7ois\u2010Marie","family":"Br\u00e9on","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Philippe","family":"Goloub","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1998,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","volume-title":"Electromagnetic scattering on spherical polydispersions","author":"Deirmendjian D.","year":"1969"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/36.297978"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4073(86)90097-X"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/36.285191"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1994)007<0465:NGSOED>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1971)028<1400:MSOPLI>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.33.004652"}],"container-title":["Geophysical Research Letters"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1029%2F98GL01221","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1029\/98GL01221","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,22]],"date-time":"2023-09-22T23:40:37Z","timestamp":1695426037000},"score":33.5801,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1029\/98GL01221"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[1998,6]]},"references-count":7,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1998,6]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1029\/98GL01221"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/98gl01221","archive":["Portico"],"ISSN":["0094-8276","1944-8007"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0094-8276","type":"print"},{"value":"1944-8007","type":"electronic"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[1998,6]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T12:20:14Z","timestamp":1790425214463,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"American Geophysical Union (AGU)","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2000,7,1]],"date-time":"2000-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":962409600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2000,7,1]],"date-time":"2000-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":962409600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/doi.wiley.com\/10.1002\/tdm_license_1.1"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Geophysical Research Letters"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2000,7,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Parameterization of effective radius (\n                    <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub>\n                    ) as proportional to the cube root of the ratio of cloud liquid water content (L) to droplet concentration (N), i.e.,\n                    <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub>\n                    = \u03b1(L\/N)\n                    <jats:sup>\u2153<\/jats:sup>\n                    , is becoming widely accepted. The principal distinction between different parameterization schemes lies in the specification of the prefactor \u03b1. This work focuses on the dependence of \u03b1 on the spectral dispersion of the cloud droplet size distribution. Relationships by\n                    <jats:italic>Pontikis and Hicks<\/jats:italic>\n                    [1992] and by\n                    <jats:italic>Liu and Hallet<\/jats:italic>\n                    [1997] that account for the dependence of \u03b1 on the spectral dispersion are compared to each other and to cloud microphysical data collected during two recent field studies. The expression of Liu and Hallet describes the spectral dependence of \u03b1 (or\n                    <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub>\n                    ) more accurately than the Pontikis and Hicks relation over the observed range of spectral dispersions. The comparison shows that the different treatments of \u03b1 as a function of spectral dispersion alone can result in substantial differences in\n                    <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub>\n                    estimated from different parameterization schemes, suggesting that accurately representing\n                    <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic>\n                    <jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub>\n                    in climate models requires predicting \u03b1 in addition to L and N.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1029\/1999gl011011","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,2,4]],"date-time":"2004-02-04T19:12:15Z","timestamp":1075921935000},"page":"1903-1906","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":84,"title":["Spectral dispersion of cloud droplet size distributions and the parameterization of cloud droplet effective radius"],"prefix":"10.1029","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Yangang","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter H.","family":"Daum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2000,7,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GL900185"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1990)007<0666:EOTFSS>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(1985)002<0626:EOTFSS>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-8095(92)90038-C"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1994)051<2722:APOWCF>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","article-title":"Droplet spectra broadening in cumulus clouds, part I, Broadening in adiabatic cores","author":"Brenguier J.\u2010L.","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. 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Eight months of measurements have been processed. Seasonal averages have been generated and are discussed here. The measurements confirm that, on average, droplets are 2 to 3 \u00b5m smaller over land than over the oceans. The smaller droplets are found over highly polluted regions and in areas affected by smoke from biomass burning activity. The influence of land masses is apparent downwind of the continents. Largest droplets are found in remote tropical oceans, away from major aerosol sources. A large zonal gradient is also apparent in the southern oceans, with very small droplets close to the Antarctic continent.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1029\/2000gl011691","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,2,5]],"date-time":"2004-02-05T00:12:15Z","timestamp":1075939935000},"page":"4065-4068","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":39,"title":["Global distribution of cloud droplet effective radius from POLDER polarization measurements"],"prefix":"10.1029","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Fran\u00e7ois\u2010Marie","family":"Br\u00e9on","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"St\u00e9phane","family":"Colzy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2000,12,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/98GL01221"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/36.297978"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1994)007<0465:NGSOED>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/98GL01095"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1990)047<1878:DOTOTA>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1998)079<2457:SBIIPF>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1977)034<1149:TIOPOT>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0960-1686(91)90159-5"}],"container-title":["Geophysical Research Letters"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1029%2F2000GL011691","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1029\/2000GL011691","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,22]],"date-time":"2023-09-22T20:58:56Z","timestamp":1695416336000},"score":30.021969,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1029\/2000GL011691"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2000,12,15]]},"references-count":8,"journal-issue":{"issue":"24","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2000,12,15]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1029\/2000GL011691"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2000gl011691","archive":["Portico"],"ISSN":["0094-8276","1944-8007"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0094-8276","type":"print"},{"value":"1944-8007","type":"electronic"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2000,12,15]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,2]],"date-time":"2024-08-02T00:18:00Z","timestamp":1722557880350},"reference-count":13,"publisher":"Japan Society of Civil Engineers","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. 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J.: Mesoscale and Convective-Scale Downdrafts as Distinct Components of Squall-Line Structure, <i>Monthly Weather Review<\/i>, Vol. 105, pp. 1568-1589, 1979."},{"key":"11","unstructured":"11) Byers, H. R. and R. R. Braham: <i>Thunderstorm<\/i>, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1949."},{"key":"12"},{"key":"13"}],"container-title":["Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Ser. 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It is found that the existence of large quantities of dry\u2010air entrainment has a major impact on the evolution of the cloud microphysics. Near to the cloud base the growth of newly nucleated droplets causes a rapid increase in the droplet effective radius with height. Higher in the cloud, dry\u2010air entrainment results in new nucleation of small droplets at all heights in the cloud and the complete evaporation of some of the pre\u2010existing droplets. The effect of this is that is that the horizontally averaged effective radius becomes a very weak function of height. The value of the effective radius is most strongly influenced by the CCN spectrum entering through the cloud base. This mean that differences between oceanic and continental clouds are reflected in different values for the effective radius. The effects of entrainment do, however, tend to reduce the sensitivity of the effective radius to the initial CCN spectrum. In addition, the very broad droplet\u2010size distribution produced by the effects of entrainment may be very important in the development of the ice phase in these clouds. The droplent effective radius produced by the entraining model is less sensitive to temperature than the effective radius predicted by adiabatic growth. The result. The result is also insensitive to differences between the CCN distribution entering the cloud base and the CNC population entrained from the environment within reasonable limits.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49711951105","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,2,3]],"date-time":"2007-02-03T05:05:22Z","timestamp":1170479122000},"page":"443-456","update-policy":"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A model of the development of droplet effective radius in convective cloud"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"119","author":[{"given":"T. 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We found sudden changes in the cloud droplet effective radius in marine water clouds, and significant differences in the effective radius between nonprecipitating clouds and precipitating clouds in which clouds and precipitation coexist. The largest radius was limited to between 15 and 20 <jats:italic>\u03bc<\/jats:italic>m for nonprecipitating clouds, whereas it increased discontinuously to 30 <jats:italic>\u03bc<\/jats:italic>m for precipitating clouds. Detailed analysis suggests that the differences are likely due to the rapid growth of cloud drops into raindrops. The radius in nonprecipitating clouds indicates that threshold sizes exist below which precipitation hardly forms. This study revealed that the threshold sizes are clearly observed and are consistent on a global scale, which improves our understanding of the second indirect effects of aerosols.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1029\/2007gl029606","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,8,14]],"date-time":"2007-08-14T20:07:36Z","timestamp":1187122056000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Significant differences in the cloud droplet effective radius between nonprecipitating and precipitating clouds"],"prefix":"10.1029","volume":"34","author":[{"given":"Takahisa","family":"Kobayashi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Meteorological Research Institute  Tsukuba Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2007,8,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_6_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.245.4923.1227"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1995)052<3556:EOCPPF>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1066434"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.237.4818.1020"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1985)042<0583:ATSOTW>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1996)053<1649:MOMSCW>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1994)007<0465:NGSOED>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_9_1","volume-title":"Cloud Dynamics","author":"Houze R. 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Soc."}],"container-title":["Geophysical Research Letters"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1029%2F2007GL029606","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1029\/2007GL029606","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,31]],"date-time":"2023-10-31T12:05:06Z","timestamp":1698753906000},"score":27.994875,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1029\/2007GL029606"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2007,8]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1029\/2007GL029606"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2007gl029606","archive":["Portico"],"ISSN":["0094-8276","1944-8007"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0094-8276","type":"print"},{"value":"1944-8007","type":"electronic"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2007,8]]},"article-number":"2007GL029606"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T05:52:03Z","timestamp":1772257923832,"version":"3.50.1"},"posted":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,30]]},"group-title":"Clouds\/Remote Sensing\/Data Processing and Information Retrieval","reference-count":0,"publisher":"Copernicus GmbH","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,30]],"date-time":"2017-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1498780800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"<jats:p>Abstract. Three-dimensional (3D) radiative transfer effects are a major source of retrieval errors in satellite-based optical re- mote sensing of clouds. In this study, we present two retrieval methods based on deep learning. We use deep neural networks (DNNs) to retrieve multipixel estimates of cloud optical thickness and column-mean cloud droplet effective radius simultane- ously from multispectral, multipixel radiances. Cloud field data are obtained from large-eddy simulations, and a 3D radiative transfer model is employed to simulate upward radiances from clouds. The cloud and radiance data are used to train and test the DNNs. The proposed DNN-based retrieval is shown to be more accurate than the existing look-up table approach that assumes plane-parallel, homogeneous clouds. By using convolutional layers, the DNN method estimates cloud properties robustly, even for optically thick clouds, and can correct the 3D radiative transfer effects that would otherwise affect the radiance values.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-2017-154","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,30]],"date-time":"2017-06-30T02:24:42Z","timestamp":1498789482000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Retrieval of optical thickness and droplet effective radius of inhomogeneous clouds using deep learning"],"prefix":"10.5194","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8417-2800","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rintaro","family":"Okamura","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9311-8598","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hironobu","family":"Iwabuchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3899-228X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"K. Sebastian","family":"Schmidt","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"3145","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.atmos-meas-tech-discuss.net\/amt-2017-154\/amt-2017-154.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,7]],"date-time":"2025-02-07T16:11:44Z","timestamp":1738944704000},"score":27.753107,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/amt.copernicus.org\/articles\/10\/4747\/2017\/amt-10-4747-2017-discussion.html"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,30]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/amt-2017-154","relation":{"has-comment":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-2017-154-AC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-2017-154-AC2","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-2017-154-AC3","asserted-by":"subject"}],"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-2017-154-RC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-2017-154-RC2","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-2017-154-RC3","asserted-by":"subject"}],"is-preprint-of":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-10-4747-2017","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-10-4747-2017","asserted-by":"object"}]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,30]]},"subtype":"preprint"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T04:46:42Z","timestamp":1789447602501,"version":"build-2803163510"},"posted":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,23]]},"group-title":"Aerosols\/Remote Sensing\/Troposphere\/Physics (physical properties and processes)","reference-count":0,"publisher":"Copernicus GmbH","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,23]],"date-time":"2019-01-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1548201600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41675004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41675004"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41590873"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41590873"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"<jats:p>Abstract. The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) C6 L3, Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) Edition-4 L3 products, and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) ERA-Interim reanalysis data are employed to systematically study aerosol-cloud correlations over three anthropogenic aerosol regions and their adjacent oceans, as well as explore the effect of retrieval artifacts and underlying physical mechanisms. This study is confined to warm phase and single layer clouds without precipitation during the summertime (June, July, and August). Our analysis suggest that cloud effective radius (CER) is positively correlated with aerosol index (AI) over land (positive slopes), but negatively correlated over oceans (negative slopes) even with small ranges of liquid water path (quasi-constant). The changes in albedo at the top of atmosphere (TOA) corresponding to aerosol-induced changes in CER also lends credence to the authenticity of this opposite aerosol-cloud correlation between land and ocean. It is noted that potential artifacts, such as the retrieval biases of both cloud (partially cloudy and 3-D shaped clouds) and aerosol, can result in a serious overestimation of the slope of CER-AI. Our results show that collision-coalescence seems not to be the dominant cause for positive slope over land, but the increased CER caused by increased aerosol might further increase CER by initializing collision-coalescence, generating a positive feedback. By stratifying data according to the lower tropospheric stability and relative humidity near cloud top, it is found that the positive correlations more likely occur in case of drier cloud top and stronger turbulence in clouds, while negative correlations occur in case of moister cloud top and weaker turbulence in clouds, which implies entrainment mixing might be a possible physical interpretation for such a positive CER-AI slope.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-2019-47","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,23]],"date-time":"2019-01-23T01:26:25Z","timestamp":1548206785000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Is Positive Correlation between Cloud Droplet Effective Radius and\nAerosol Index over Land Due to Retrieval Artifacts or Real Physical\nProcesses?"],"prefix":"10.5194","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4741-588X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hailing","family":"Jia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4485-8431","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoyan","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7057-194X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johannes","family":"Quaas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8391-2712","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tom","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"3145","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net\/acp-2019-47\/acp-2019-47.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,1]],"date-time":"2025-02-01T03:50:35Z","timestamp":1738381835000},"score":27.503872,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/acp.copernicus.org\/articles\/19\/8879\/2019\/acp-19-8879-2019-discussion.html"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,23]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/acp-2019-47","relation":{"has-comment":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/acp-2019-47-AC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/acp-2019-47-AC2","asserted-by":"subject"}],"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/acp-2019-47-RC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/acp-2019-47-RC2","asserted-by":"subject"}],"is-preprint-of":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/acp-19-8879-2019","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/acp-19-8879-2019","asserted-by":"object"}]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,23]]},"subtype":"preprint"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T06:29:02Z","timestamp":1772000942615,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IEEE Trans. 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China","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"LIU","family":"Guihua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"DAI","family":"Jin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"YUE","family":"Zhiguo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"name":"\u4e2d\u56fd\u6c14\u8c61\u5c40 \u79e6\u5cad\u548c\u9ec4\u571f\u9ad8\u539f\u751f\u6001\u73af\u5883\u6c14\u8c61\u91cd\u70b9\u5f00\u653e\u5b9e\u9a8c\u5ba4, \u897f\u5b89 710016 Key Open Laboratory of Eco-Environment Meteorology for the Qinling Mountains and Loess Plateau, China Meteorological Administration, Xi'an 710016, China","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"name":"\u9655\u897f\u7701\u4eba\u5de5\u5f71\u54cd\u5929\u6c14\u4e2d\u5fc3, \u897f\u5b89 710016 Center of Weather Modification of Shaanxi Province, Xi'an 710016, China","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"39207","container-title":["National Remote Sensing Bulletin"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/www.publish.founderss.cn\/rc-pub\/front\/front-article\/download?id=87156704&attachType=lowqualitypdf&siteId=91","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T01:35:01Z","timestamp":1760319301000},"score":27.187721,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.ygxb.ac.cn\/zh\/article\/doi\/10.11834\/jrs.20254248\/"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"references-count":0,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.11834\/jrs.20254248","ISSN":["1007-4619"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"1007-4619"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T10:00:34Z","timestamp":1791280834430,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"American Geophysical Union (AGU)","issue":"D24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2003,12,18]],"date-time":"2003-12-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1071705600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Geophys. Res."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,12,27]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    <jats:ext-link xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" xlink:href=\"#jgrd10855-bib-0004\">\n                      <jats:italic>Chang and Li<\/jats:italic>\n                      [2002]\n                    <\/jats:ext-link>\n                    proposed a new cloud microphysics retrieval technique that can estimate the vertical profile of droplet effective radius (DER) for water clouds using multispectral near\u2010infrared (NIR) measurements. The underlying principle of the retrieval technique is that radiance measurements at distinct multi\u2010NIR wavelengths possess different penetration depths inside the cloud and this conveys certain information on the DER vertical profile (DVP). However, this information is insufficient to retrieve any shape of DVP and thus a linear DVP was assumed. In this study, three DVPs are examined: (1) as in\n                    <jats:ext-link xmlns:xlink=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xlink\" xlink:href=\"#jgrd10855-bib-0004\">\n                      <jats:italic>Chang and Li<\/jats:italic>\n                      [2002]\n                    <\/jats:ext-link>\n                    , a linear DVP proportional to the in\u2010cloud optical depth, (2) a linear DVP proportional to the height within the cloud, and (3) a DVP where the liquid water content (LWC) within the cloud varies linearly with height. The latter two assumptions are in closer conformity with in\u2010situ observations. Algorithms that can retrieve both the DVP and cloud liquid water path (LWP) are presented. The cloud LWPs derived based on the retrieved DVPs are more sound than those obtained from assuming a vertical\u2010constant DER profile. To enhance the DVP retrievals, a split\u2010window technique is presented to better estimate the amount of above\u2010cloud precipitable water (PW). The retrieval algorithms are applied to the MODIS Level\u20101B 1\u2010km data and presently tested for two stratiform cloud cases observed over the north\u2010central Oklahoma where independent cloud microphysics data are available from the United States Department of Energy's Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) Program. Good agreements in the retrieved DER profile, LWP, and above\u2010cloud PW are found in a preliminary demonstration of the new approach. Sensitivity of the retrieved DER profile to uncertainties in the above\u2010cloud PW and surface albedos is also discussed.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1029\/2003jd003906","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2003,12,17]],"date-time":"2003-12-17T16:36:39Z","timestamp":1071678999000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":65,"title":["Retrieving vertical profiles of water\u2010cloud droplet effective radius: Algorithm modification and preliminary application"],"prefix":"10.1029","volume":"108","author":[{"given":"Fu\u2010Lung","family":"Chang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center University of Maryland  College Park Maryland USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhanqing","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center University of Maryland  College Park Maryland USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,12,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_9_2_1","unstructured":"Berk A. et al. MODTRAN4 v.2.0 User's Manual Air Force Geophys. Lab. Tech. Rep.AFGL\u2010TR\u201089\u20100122. 98 pp. Air Force Mat. Comm. Hanscomb AFB Mass. 1999."},{"key":"e_1_2_9_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1994)051<2722:APOWCF>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2000)057<0803:RPOBLC>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2001JD000766"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2000)013<3842:ETRBCA>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_7_1","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Atmospheric Radiation","author":"Chang F.\u2010L.","year":"2002"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1983)022<0725:LLWVFF>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2000)057<2765:TAADOS>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2003)020<0042:POLLSC>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1995)052<2788:MOSCAD>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2000)013<3611:TARIOT>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1994)007<0465:NGSOED>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1998)011<1516:GSOTRO>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00168069"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/JD095iD11p18687"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1992)005<1281:TEOCTO>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_18_1","unstructured":"Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) J. 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L.","year":"1999"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2001)058<2912:VOODAE>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_9_37_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0426(2003)020<0117:DBAVIV>2.0.CO;2"}],"container-title":["Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1029%2F2003JD003906","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1029\/2003JD003906","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,13]],"date-time":"2023-10-13T22:15:51Z","timestamp":1697235351000},"score":27.185787,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1029\/2003JD003906"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2003,12,18]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"D24","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,12,27]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1029\/2003JD003906"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1029\/2003jd003906","archive":["Portico"],"ISSN":["0148-0227"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0148-0227","type":"print"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2003,12,18]]},"article-number":"2003JD003906"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T10:13:11Z","timestamp":1770718391508,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":21,"publisher":"American Geophysical Union (AGU)","issue":"D11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2002,6,1]],"date-time":"2002-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1022889600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Geophys. Res."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2002,6,16]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Twenty\u2010eight liquid water cloud cases selected from two field studies (the Canadian Radiation, Aerosol and Cloud Experiment (RACE) and the First ISCCP Regional Experiment\u2010Arctic Cloud Experiment (FIRE.ACE)) are analyzed with respect to the first and second indirect aerosol effects and the relationship between cloud droplet effective radius and cloud albedo for clean and polluted clouds. For the same liquid water path the polluted clouds have more and smaller cloud droplets and thus a higher cloud albedo and less drizzle size drops. The effective radius is positively correlated with cloud albedo for polluted clouds caused by the absence of drizzle size drops. Conversely effective radius is negatively correlated with cloud albedo for clean clouds.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1029\/2000jd000281","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,10,27]],"date-time":"2002-10-27T18:39:25Z","timestamp":1035743965000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":60,"title":["The cloud albedo\u2010cloud droplet effective radius relationship for clean and polluted clouds from RACE and FIRE.ACE"],"prefix":"10.1029","volume":"107","author":[{"given":"Yiran","family":"Peng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Atmospheric Science Dalhousie University  Halifax Nova Scotia Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ulrike","family":"Lohmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Atmospheric Science Dalhousie University  Halifax Nova Scotia Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Leaitch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Meteorological Service of Canada  Downsview Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Catharine","family":"Banic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Meteorological Service of Canada  Downsview Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mark","family":"Couture","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Meteorological Service of Canada  Downsview Ontario Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2002,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_7_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.245.4923.1227"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(2000)013<4042:IAFBHA>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1991)048<0264:POTCPA>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(2000)057<0803:RPOBLC>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/23438"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(2000)081<0005:FACE>2.3.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/98JD02121"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1998)011<1516:GSOTRO>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2000JD900776"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_11_1","article-title":"Maritime\/continental drizzle contrasts in small cumuli","author":"Hudson J. G.","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Sci."},{"key":"e_1_2_7_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0074-6142(08)60214-4"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GL900232"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/98GL00910"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02786829208959539"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GL011098"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_17_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1980)037<0630:TSATRT>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_18_1","unstructured":"Pawlowska H. andJ. L.Brenguier The indirect effect of aerosols on climate: Effect of aerosol properties on precipitation efficiency paper presented at the 13th International Conference on Clouds and Precipitation Reno Nevada 2000."},{"key":"e_1_2_7_19_1","volume-title":"Microphysics of Clouds and Precipitation","author":"Pruppacher H. R.","year":"1997"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/1999GL006066"},{"key":"e_1_2_7_21_1","article-title":"Variability of optical depth and effective radius in marine stratocumulus clouds","author":"Szczodrak M.","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Atmos. 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Cloud-aerosol interaction is no longer simply a radiative problem, but one affecting the water cycle, the weather, and the total energy balance including the spatial and temporal distribution of latent heat release. Information on the vertical distribution of cloud droplet microphysics and thermodynamic phase as a function of temperature or height, can be correlated with details of the aerosol field to provide insight on how these particles are affecting cloud properties and its consequences to cloud lifetime, precipitation, water cycle, and general energy balance. Unfortunately, today's experimental methods still lack the observational tools that can characterize the true evolution of the cloud microphysical, spatial and temporal structure in the cloud droplet scale, and then link these characteristics to environmental factors and properties of the cloud condensation nuclei.  Here we propose and demonstrate a new experimental approach (the cloud scanner instrument) that provides the microphysical information missed in current experiments and remote sensing options. Cloud scanner measurements can be performed from aircraft, ground, or satellite by scanning the side of the clouds from the base to the top, providing us with the unique opportunity of obtaining snapshots of the cloud droplet microphysical and thermodynamic states as a function of height and brightness temperature in clouds at several development stages. The brightness temperature profile of the cloud side can be directly associated with the thermodynamic phase of the droplets to provide information on the glaciation temperature as a function of different ambient conditions, aerosol concentration, and type. An aircraft prototype of the cloud scanner was built and flew in a field campaign in Brazil.  The CLAIM-3D (3-Dimensional Cloud Aerosol Interaction Mission) satellite concept proposed here combines several techniques to simultaneously measure the vertical profile of cloud microphysics, thermodynamic phase, brightness temperature, and aerosol amount and type in the neighborhood of the clouds. The wide wavelength range, and the use of mutli-angle polarization measurements proposed for this mission allow us to estimate the availability and characteristics of aerosol particles acting as cloud condensation nuclei, and their effects on the cloud microphysical structure. These results can provide unprecedented details on the response of cloud droplet microphysics to natural and anthropogenic aerosols in the size scale where the interaction really happens.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/acpd-7-4481-2007","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,4,29]],"date-time":"2010-04-29T08:24:13Z","timestamp":1272529453000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Remote sensing the vertical profile of cloud droplet effective radius, thermodynamic phase, and temperature"],"prefix":"10.5194","author":[{"given":"J.","family":"Vanderlei Martins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"A.","family":"Marshak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"L. A.","family":"Remer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"D.","family":"Rosenfeld","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Y. J.","family":"Kaufman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"R.","family":"Fernandez-Borda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"I.","family":"Koren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"V.","family":"Zubko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"P.","family":"Artaxo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"3145","reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ackerman, A. S., Toon, O. 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Chem. Phys."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Abstract. Cloud-aerosol interaction is a key issue in the climate system, affecting the water cycle, the weather, and the total energy balance including the spatial and temporal distribution of latent heat release. Information on the vertical distribution of cloud droplet microphysics and thermodynamic phase as a function of temperature or height, can be correlated with details of the aerosol field to provide insight on how these particles are affecting cloud properties and their consequences to cloud lifetime, precipitation, water cycle, and general energy balance. Unfortunately, today's experimental methods still lack the observational tools that can characterize the true evolution of the cloud microphysical, spatial and temporal structure in the cloud droplet scale, and then link these characteristics to environmental factors and properties of the cloud condensation nuclei.  Here we propose and demonstrate a new experimental approach (the cloud scanner instrument) that provides the microphysical information missed in current experiments and remote sensing options. Cloud scanner measurements can be performed from aircraft, ground, or satellite by scanning the side of the clouds from the base to the top, providing us with the unique opportunity of obtaining snapshots of the cloud droplet microphysical and thermodynamic states as a function of height and brightness temperature in clouds at several development stages. The brightness temperature profile of the cloud side can be directly associated with the thermodynamic phase of the droplets to provide information on the glaciation temperature as a function of different ambient conditions, aerosol concentration, and type. An aircraft prototype of the cloud scanner was built and flew in a field campaign in Brazil.  The CLAIM-3D (3-Dimensional Cloud Aerosol Interaction Mission) satellite concept proposed here combines several techniques to simultaneously measure the vertical profile of cloud microphysics, thermodynamic phase, brightness temperature, and aerosol amount and type in the neighborhood of the clouds. The wide wavelength range, and the use of multi-angle polarization measurements proposed for this mission allow us to estimate the availability and characteristics of aerosol particles acting as cloud condensation nuclei, and their effects on the cloud microphysical structure. These results can provide unprecedented details on the response of cloud droplet microphysics to natural and anthropogenic aerosols in the size scale where the interaction really happens.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-11-9485-2011","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,9,16]],"date-time":"2011-09-16T08:04:25Z","timestamp":1316160265000},"page":"9485-9501","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":61,"title":["Remote sensing the vertical profile of cloud droplet effective radius, thermodynamic phase, and temperature"],"prefix":"10.5194","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"J. V.","family":"Martins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A.","family":"Marshak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"L. A.","family":"Remer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"D.","family":"Rosenfeld","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Y. J.","family":"Kaufman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"R.","family":"Fernandez-Borda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"I.","family":"Koren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A. L.","family":"Correia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"V.","family":"Zubko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"P.","family":"Artaxo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"3145","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,9,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"% vor jede Referenz Ackerman, A. S., Toon, O. B., Stevens, D. E., Heymsfield, A. J., Ramanathan, V., and Welton, E. J.: Reduction of tropical cloudiness by soot, Science, 288, 1042\u20131047, 2000.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.288.5468.1042"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albrecht, B. 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All rights reserved.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright"}]},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T04:16:12Z","timestamp":1789445772544,"version":"build-2803163510"},"posted":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,17]]},"group-title":"Clouds\/Remote Sensing\/Data Processing and Information Retrieval","reference-count":0,"publisher":"Copernicus GmbH","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,17]],"date-time":"2018-09-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1537142400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"<jats:p>Abstract. Convective clouds play an essential role for Earth's climate as well as for regional weather events since they have a large influence on the radiation budget and the water cycle. In particular, cloud albedo and the formation of precipitation are influenced by aerosol particles within clouds. In order to improve the understanding of processes from aerosol activation, over cloud droplet growth to changes in cloud radiative properties, remote sensing techniques become more and more important. While passive retrievals for spaceborne observations have become sophisticated and commonplace to infer cloud optical thickness and droplet size from cloud tops, profiles of droplet size have remained largely uncharted territory for passive remote sensing. In principle they could be derived from observations of cloud sides, but faced with with the small-scale structure of cloud sides, classical passive remote sensing techniques are rendered inappropriate. In this work the feasibility is demonstrated to gain new insights into the vertical evolution of cloud droplet effective radius by using reflected solar radiation from cloud sides. Central aspect of this work on its path to a working cloud side retrieval is the analysis of the impact unknown cloud surface geometry has on effective radius retrievals. Using extensive 3D radiative transfer calculations on the basis of realistic droplet size resolving cloud simulations, the sensitivity of reflected solar radiation to cloud droplet size is examined. Sensitivity is enhanced by considering the pixel surrounding to resolve ambiguities caused by illumination and cloud geometry. Based on these findings, a statistical approach is used to provide an effective radius retrieval. An in-depth sensitivity study of the presented approach on the basis of a wide range of radiative transfer test cases demonstrates the feasibility to retrieve cloud particle size profiles from cloud sides.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-2018-234","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,17]],"date-time":"2018-09-17T01:58:51Z","timestamp":1537149531000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Remote Sensing of Cloud Droplet Radius Profiles using solar\nreflectance from cloud sides. Part I: Retrieval development and\ncharacterization"],"prefix":"10.5194","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5899-0890","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florian","family":"Ewald","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tobias","family":"Zinner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-8742-2706","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tobias","family":"K\u00f6lling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3358-0190","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernhard","family":"Mayer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"3145","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.atmos-meas-tech-discuss.net\/amt-2018-234\/amt-2018-234.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,1]],"date-time":"2025-02-01T06:06:40Z","timestamp":1738390000000},"score":26.780476,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/amt.copernicus.org\/articles\/12\/1183\/2019\/amt-12-1183-2019-discussion.html"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,17]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/amt-2018-234","relation":{"has-comment":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-2018-234-AC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-2018-234-AC2","asserted-by":"subject"}],"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-2018-234-RC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-2018-234-RC2","asserted-by":"subject"}],"is-preprint-of":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-12-1183-2019","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-12-1183-2019","asserted-by":"object"}]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,17]]},"subtype":"preprint"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,2]],"date-time":"2026-10-02T02:33:40Z","timestamp":1790908420582,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"Copernicus GmbH","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,12]],"date-time":"2019-07-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1562889600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41675004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41675004"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41590873"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41590873"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Atmos. Chem. Phys."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS)\nC6 L3, Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) Edition-4 L3\nproducts, and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF)\nERA-Interim reanalysis data are employed to systematically study\naerosol\u2013cloud correlations over three anthropogenic aerosol regions and\ntheir adjacent oceans, as well as explore the effect of retrieval artifacts\nand underlying physical mechanisms. This study is confined to warm phase and\nsingle-layer clouds without precipitation during the summertime (June, July,\nand August). Our analysis suggests that cloud effective radius (CER) is\npositively correlated with aerosol optical depth (AOD) over land (positive\nslopes), but negatively correlated with aerosol index (AI) over oceans\n(negative slopes) even with small ranges of liquid water path\n(quasi-constant). The changes in albedo at the top of the atmosphere (TOA)\ncorresponding to aerosol-induced changes in CER also lend credence to the\nauthenticity of this opposite aerosol\u2013cloud correlation between land and\nocean. It is noted that potential artifacts, such as the retrieval biases of\nboth cloud (partially cloudy and 3-D-shaped clouds) and aerosol, can result\nin a serious overestimation of the slope of CER\u2013AOD\/AI. Our results show\nthat collision\u2013coalescence seems not to be the dominant cause for positive\nslope over land, but the increased CER caused by increased aerosol might\nfurther increase CER by initializing collision\u2013coalescence, generating a\npositive feedback. By stratifying data according to the lower tropospheric\nstability and relative humidity near cloud top, it is found that the\npositive correlations more likely occur in the case of drier cloud top and\nstronger turbulence in clouds, while negative correlations occur in the case of\nmoister cloud top and weaker turbulence in clouds, which implies entrainment\nmixing might be a possible physical interpretation for such a positive\nCER\u2013AOD slope.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-19-8879-2019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,12]],"date-time":"2019-07-12T04:06:27Z","timestamp":1562904387000},"page":"8879-8896","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":51,"title":["Is positive correlation between cloud droplet effective radius and aerosol optical depth over land due to retrieval artifacts or real physical processes?"],"prefix":"10.5194","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4741-588X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hailing","family":"Jia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4485-8431","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoyan","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"corresponding-author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7057-194X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johannes","family":"Quaas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8391-2712","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yan","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tom","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"3145","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Albrecht, B.: Aerosols, Cloud Microphysics, and Fractional Cloudiness, Science, 245, 1227\u20131230, 10.1126\/science.245.4923.1227, 1989.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.245.4923.1227"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Almeida, G. 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Meas. Tech."],"abstract":"<jats:p>Convective clouds play an essential role for Earth's\nclimate as well as for regional weather events since they have a large\ninfluence on the radiation budget and the water cycle. In particular, cloud\nalbedo and the formation of precipitation are influenced by aerosol particles\nwithin clouds. In order to improve the understanding of processes from\naerosol activation, from cloud droplet growth to changes in cloud radiative\nproperties, remote sensing techniques become more and more important. While\npassive retrievals for spaceborne observations have become sophisticated and\ncommonplace for inferring cloud optical thickness and droplet size from cloud\ntops, profiles of droplet size have remained largely uncharted territory for\npassive remote sensing. In principle they could be derived from observations\nof cloud sides, but faced with the small-scale heterogeneity of cloud sides, \u201cclassical\u201d passive remote sensing techniques are rendered inappropriate.\nIn this work the feasibility is demonstrated to gain new insights into the\nvertical evolution of cloud droplet effective radius by using reflected solar\nradiation from cloud sides. Central aspect of this work on its path to a\nworking cloud side retrieval is the analysis of the impact unknown cloud\nsurface geometry has on effective radius retrievals. This study examines the\nsensitivity of reflected solar radiation to cloud droplet size, using\nextensive 3-D radiative transfer calculations on the basis of realistic\ndroplet size resolving cloud simulations. Furthermore, it explores a further\ntechnique to resolve ambiguities caused by illumination and cloud geometry by\nconsidering the surroundings of each pixel. Based on these findings, a\nstatistical approach is used to provide an effective radius retrieval. This\nstatistical effective radius retrieval is focused on the liquid part of\nconvective water clouds, e.g., cumulus mediocris, cumulus congestus, and\ntrade-wind cumulus, which exhibit well-developed cloud sides. Finally, the\ndeveloped retrieval is tested using known and unknown cloud side scenes to\nanalyze its performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-12-1183-2019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,25]],"date-time":"2019-02-25T03:16:23Z","timestamp":1551064583000},"page":"1183-1206","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Remote sensing of cloud droplet radius profiles using solar reflectance from cloud sides \u2013 Part 1: Retrieval development and characterization"],"prefix":"10.5194","volume":"12","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5899-0890","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florian","family":"Ewald","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"corresponding-author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tobias","family":"Zinner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-8742-2706","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tobias","family":"K\u00f6lling","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3358-0190","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernhard","family":"Mayer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"3145","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Alexandrov, M. 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J Royal Meteoro Soc"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1996,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Various methods for predicting cloud\u2010droplet effective radius in the Hadley Centre general circulation model are compared with aircraft and satellite retrievals, and are used to estimate the indirect radiative forcing by anthropogenic sulphate aerosols since the beginning of the industrial era. The effects both of different parametrization approaches and of different input sulphate data sets are examined; however, there is no clear evidence to prefer either of the two sulphate data sets used in the study. Two of the parametrizations generate distributions of present\u2010day effective radius which are similar to each other and compare favourably with observations, yet provide very different estimates of the indirect effect, ranging from \u22120.5 to \u22121.5 W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup> in the global annual mean. A sensitivity experiment in which it is assumed that droplet concentrations are not determined by sulphate concentrations in continental air reduces this global\u2010mean forcing to \u22120.3 to \u22120.8 W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup>. This sensitivity demonstrates the need for a much better understanding of the link between sulphate aerosol mass concentrations, cloud condensation nuclei, and cloud\u2010droplet number concentrations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1002\/qj.49712253506","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,2,3]],"date-time":"2007-02-03T05:22:39Z","timestamp":1170480159000},"page":"1573-1595","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Predicting cloud\u2010droplet effective radius and indirect sulphate aerosol forcing using a general circulation model"],"prefix":"10.1002","volume":"122","author":[{"given":"A.","family":"Jones","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A.","family":"Slingo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2006,12,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.245.4923.1227"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0477(1995)076<0889:TASTE>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","volume-title":"Atmospheric aerosols: global climatology and radiative characteristics","author":"d'Almeida G. 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available from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) satellite observations. The method is based on the principle that these multispectral NIR measurements convey DER information from different heights within a cloud, which is sufficient to allow for the retrieval of a linear DER vertical profile. The method is applicable to low\u2010level, nonprecipitating, stratiform clouds as their DER often increases monotonically from cloud bottom to cloud top. As such, an optimum linear DER profile can be derived by comparing multispectral NIR measurements to corresponding model values generated for a large set of linear DER profiles. The retrieval method was evaluated and compared to the conventional 3.7\u2010\u03bcm retrieval method by applying both methods to some marine stratocumulus clouds with in situ observations of microphysical profiles. Capable of capturing the DER variation trend, the retrieved linear DER profiles showed large improvement over the conventional 3.75\u2010\u03bcm retrievals. Mean differences between the linear DER retrievals and observed profiles were generally small for both cloud top and bottom (&lt;1.0 \u03bcm), whereas the conventional retrievals are prone to systematic overestimation near cloud bottom. 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With the coming launch of the Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Earth Observatory (CLARREO) Pathfinder (CPF) comes an opportunity to develop a new cloud retrieval from spectral reflectance measurements. With continuous coverage across the shortwave spectrum and a factor of 5 to 10 lower radiometric uncertainty than the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), CPF facilitates the retrieval of a vertical profile of droplet size, providing insight into the internal structure of a cloud. Measurements from MODIS coincident with in situ observations provide the foundation for developing a constrained optimal estimation technique, ensuring a solution consistent with forward model assumptions. The limited unique information in the MODIS bands used in this analysis led to a non-unique solution, with many droplet profiles leading to convergence. Droplet size at cloud bottom is difficult to constrain because visible and near-infrared reflectances have an average penetration depth near cloud top. The region of convergence within the solution space decreased along the cloud bottom radius dimension by 2 \u03bcm when increasing the number of wavelengths used in the retrieval from seven to 35, and by 5 \u03bcm when reducing the measurement uncertainty from 2 % to 0.3 %. The enhanced accuracy and, to a lesser degree, the enhanced spectral sampling provided by CPF measurements are essential to extracting vertically resolved droplet size information from moderately thick, warm clouds.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-546","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,13]],"date-time":"2025-02-13T08:35:39Z","timestamp":1739435739000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Retrieving Vertical Profiles of Cloud Droplet Effective Radius using Multispectral Measurements from MODIS: Examples and Limitations"],"prefix":"10.5194","author":[{"given":"Andrew John","family":"Buggee","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peter Andrew","family":"Pilewskie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"3145","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,14]],"date-time":"2025-10-14T19:13:14Z","timestamp":1760469194000},"score":25.347006,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/egusphere.copernicus.org\/preprints\/2025\/egusphere-2025-546\/"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,13]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/egusphere-2025-546","relation":{"has-comment":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-546-AC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-546-AC2","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-546-AC6","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-546-AC3","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-546-AC5","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-546-AC4","asserted-by":"subject"}],"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-546-RC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-546-RC2","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-546-RC3","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-546-RC4","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-546-RC5","asserted-by":"subject"}],"is-preprint-of":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-18-5299-2025","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/amt-18-5299-2025","asserted-by":"object"}]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,13]]},"subtype":"preprint"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T21:17:12Z","timestamp":1787779032018,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"American Geophysical Union (AGU)","issue":"D6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1999,3,1]],"date-time":"1999-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":920246400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. Geophys. Res."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,3,27]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>During the Smoke, Clouds, and Radiation\u2010Brazil (SCAR\u2010B) project, the microphysical properties of over 1000 warm, nonprecipitating, clouds were measured from the University of Washington research aircraft. The clouds were partially embedded in the continental\u2010scale, smoky haze that envelops much of Brazil during the biomass\u2010burning season. For the entire data set, the most universal parameterization for the effective cloud droplet radius (<jats:italic>r<jats:sub>eff<\/jats:sub><\/jats:italic>) is as a function of the ratio of cloud liquid water content (LWC) to droplet concentration (essentially the volume mean radius, <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>v<\/jats:sub>); this agrees with previous studies under less polluted conditions. Comparisons of SCAR\u2010B data with data from the east coast of the United States and clean oceanic areas show that the <jats:italic>r<jats:sub>eff<\/jats:sub><\/jats:italic>\u2010<jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>v<\/jats:sub> relationship is similar in all three cases, suggesting that even the extreme case of clouds impacted by large biomass fires can be treated similarly to more typical clouds. Beyond a certain ambient concentration of accumulation\u2010mode particles (\u223c3000\u20134000 cm<jats:sup>\u22123<\/jats:sup>), cloud drop number concentrations for cumulus clouds in Brazil were almost constant, so that further increases in the ambient particle concentration did not change <jats:italic>r<jats:sub>eff<\/jats:sub><\/jats:italic> and <jats:italic>r<jats:sub>eff<\/jats:sub><\/jats:italic> correlates well with LWC alone. For example, a cumulus cloud, which capped a particularly large smoke plume with total particle concentrations &gt;150,000 cm<jats:sup>\u22123<\/jats:sup>, had the same <jats:italic>r<jats:sub>eff<\/jats:sub><\/jats:italic>\u2010LWC relationship as other clouds in the region where the ambient particle concentrations were \u223c3000 cm<jats:sup>\u22123<\/jats:sup>. In this study the values of <jats:italic>r<jats:sub>eff<\/jats:sub><\/jats:italic> for cumulus clouds in Brazil affected by smoke were between 3 and 8 \u03bcm, compared to 9 to 14 \u03bcm inferred from satellite measurements of cloud reflectivity at 3.7 \u03bcm by <jats:italic>Kaufman and Fraser<\/jats:italic> [1997].<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1029\/1998jd200119","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,9,17]],"date-time":"2002-09-17T22:12:20Z","timestamp":1032300740000},"page":"6145-6153","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":69,"title":["Relationships between cloud droplet effective radius, liquid water content, and droplet concentration for warm clouds in Brazil embedded in biomass smoke"],"prefix":"10.1029","volume":"104","author":[{"given":"Jeffrey S.","family":"Reid","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter 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effect of anthropogenic sulfate aerosols on marine cloud droplet concentrations","volume":"46","author":"Novakov T.","year":"1994","journal-title":"Tellus"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/98JD00458"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/97JD03677"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/1998JD200028"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.27.002502"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01993560"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0469(1967)024<0704:TPOCNB>2.0.CO;2"}],"container-title":["Journal of Geophysical Research: 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GmbH","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]],"date-time":"2025-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763596800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Atmos. Chem. Phys."],"abstract":"<jats:p>The vertical structure of clouds plays a critical role in atmospheric radiative transfer and is a major source of uncertainty in satellite-based retrievals of cloud optical thickness (COT) and cloud effective radius (CER). Most operational algorithms assume a single homogeneous layer, but the biases introduced by this simplification under realistic multilayer conditions remain poorly quantified. This study systematically investigates how perturbations in cloud vertical structure affect COT and CER retrievals using Fengyun-4A Advanced Geostationary Radiation Imager (FY4A\/AGRI) and simulations from Advanced Radiative Transfer Modeling System (ARMS) over central and eastern China during June\u2013August 2018. We designed ten sensitivity experiments by varying water and ice content across single-, double-, and triple-layer cloud configurations to quantify the impact of structural differences on channel reflectance and the COT-CER relationship. The results indicate that upper-level ice clouds significantly mask reflectance from lower water clouds, reducing total reflectance by approximately 50\u2009% and leading to systematic retrieval biases: single-layer algorithms underestimate COT at small CER (&lt;\u200910\u2009\u00b5m) but overestimate it by approximately 20\u00a0units under larger CER conditions. In single-layer clouds, variations in low- and mid-level water content produce mean COT increases that are \u223c\u200924\u2009% larger than in double-layer structure, with similar biases occurring in three-layer clouds. Furthermore, enhanced mid-level liquid water enhances the nonlinear relationship between COT and CER, increasing retrieval uncertainties. These findings identify cloud vertical heterogeneity as a major source of retrieval bias and emphasize the necessity of integrating multilayer cloud information into satellite retrieval algorithms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-25-16347-2025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]],"date-time":"2025-11-20T10:58:10Z","timestamp":1763636290000},"page":"16347-16361","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Impact of cloud vertical structure perturbations on the retrieval of cloud optical thickness and effective radius from FY4A\/AGRI"],"prefix":"10.5194","volume":"25","author":[{"given":"Jing","family":"Sun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunying","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05d2yfz11","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"National University of Defense Technology (Changsha, China)"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00bx3rb98","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"China Meteorological Administration (Beijing, China)"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"corresponding-author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qian","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chengzhi","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1855-3650","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yining","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zitong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"3145","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Ackerman, S. A., Holz, R. E., Frey, R., Eloranta, E. W., Maddux, B. C., and Mcgill, M.: Cloud detection with MODIS. Part II: Validation, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 25, 1073\u20131086, 10.1175\/2007JTECHA1053.1, 2008.","DOI":"10.1175\/2007JTECHA1053.1"},{"key":"ref2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Bi, L. and Yang, P.: Improved ice particle optical property simulations in the ultraviolet to far-infrared regime, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Ra., 189, 228\u2013237, 10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2016.12.007, 2017.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2016.12.007"},{"key":"ref3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Weng, F., Han, Y., and Liu, Q.: Validation of the community radiative transfer model by using CloudSat data, J. Geophys. 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The vertical structure of clouds plays a critical role in atmospheric radiative transfer processes and is a major source of uncertainty in satellite-based retrievals of cloud optical thickness (COT) and cloud effective radius (CER). This study develops a retrieval model for COT and CER based on a random forest framework coupled with spatial gradient features, using multispectral observations from the FY4A\/AGRI (Advanced Geostationary Radiation Imager) and simulations from Advanced Radiative Transfer Modeling System (ARMS) over central and eastern China during June\u2013August 2018. The retrieval results agree well with MODIS, with correlation coefficients of 0.87 and 0.91 for COT and CER, respectively. To assess the impact of vertical cloud structure, ten sensitivity experiments varied water and ice content in different cloud layers. The results indicate that upper-level ice clouds significantly mask reflectance from lower clouds, reducing total reflectance by approximately 50 %, leading to lower retrieved values than those of single-layer clouds. For CER &lt; 20\u202f\u03bcm, the mean COT increase due to low- and mid-level water cloud variations in single-layer clouds exceeds that in double-layer clouds by about 24 %, primarily due to the masking effect of upper-level ice clouds in double-layer structures. This masking also contributes to retrieval biases in three-layer cloud systems. Furthermore, increased mid-level liquid water enhances the nonlinear relationship between COT and CER, increasing retrieval uncertainties. This study highlights the importance of considering multi-layer cloud structures in remote sensing algorithms and radiative transfer models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-2025-2939","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,8]],"date-time":"2025-07-08T03:55:55Z","timestamp":1751946955000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Impact of Cloud Vertical Structure Perturbations on the Retrieval of Cloud Optical Thickness and Effective Radius from 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The correlation between chlorophyll <jats:italic>a<\/jats:italic> concentrations, an indication of oceanic productivity, and low cloud droplet liquid phase effective radius (<jats:italic>R<\/jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>e<\/jats:italic><\/jats:sub>) is examined for several ocean regions and time periods. While a strong correlation between chlorophyll <jats:italic>a<\/jats:italic> and low <jats:italic>R<\/jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>e<\/jats:italic><\/jats:sub> can occur for specific periods in some locations, the correlation is not reproducible in other regions and time periods. The intermittent correlation between high concentrations of chlorophyll <jats:italic>a<\/jats:italic> and low <jats:italic>R<\/jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>e<\/jats:italic><\/jats:sub> is a coincidence and is not representative of a dominant, monotonic, causative relation between secondary organic aerosols and marine shallow cloud properties.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1029\/2008gl034354","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2008,7,7]],"date-time":"2008-07-07T20:42:54Z","timestamp":1215463374000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Lack of correlation between chlorophyll <i>a<\/i> and cloud droplet effective radius in shallow marine clouds"],"prefix":"10.1029","volume":"35","author":[{"given":"Matthew A.","family":"Miller","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Marine, Earth, and Atmospheric Sciences North Carolina State University  Raleigh North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sandra E.","family":"Yuter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Marine, Earth, and Atmospheric Sciences North Carolina State University  Raleigh North Carolina USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2008,7,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_8_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03174"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-1681.1"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL022791"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JD006138"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2005JD006668"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1131779"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.317.5834.42b"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0442(1998)011<0383:LCTOTO>2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/plankt\/21.2.201"},{"key":"e_1_2_8_11_1","volume-title":"Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey","author":"Wallace J. 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For this diagnostic study, only liquid\u2010phase variations in <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub> are addressed; the ice\u2010cloud particle distributions are assumed to be constant. For reference calculations, values of <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub> in the CSRM cells are computed assuming that the droplet\u2010number concentration <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>cld<\/jats:sub> and the effective variance of droplet\u2010size distribution are constant in a GCM cell. The independent\u2010column approximation is used to produce flux profiles for each GCM column. Three alternative methods of setting horizontally\u2010invariant <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub> are examined, each of which resemble how <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub> is set in one\u2010dimensional radiative\u2010transfer models. Relative to the reference calculations, the other methods lead to positive spurious radiative forcings at the surface and at the top of the atmosphere. These stem from overestimation of optical\u2010depth variability and, thus, reduced short\u2010wave albedo of clouds. Globally averaged, these forcings range from 1 W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup> to 3 W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup>, with zonal\u2010mean biases reaching almost 15 W m<jats:sup>\u22122<\/jats:sup>. The most severe biases arise from use of constant values of <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub> over the land and the ocean.<\/jats:p><jats:p>In addition, radiative effects due to unacknowledged uncertainty in <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>cld<\/jats:sub> (or <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>e<\/jats:sub>) are assessed. It is shown that ad hoc, but not outlandish, estimates of <jats:italic>unbiased<\/jats:italic> uncertainty in <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>cld<\/jats:sub> impart <jats:italic>biases<\/jats:italic> on estimates of the earth's solar\u2010radiation budget (tantamount to a spurious radiative forcing). These arise through the chain of nonlinear relations that link <jats:italic>N<\/jats:italic><jats:sub>cld<\/jats:sub> to solar radiative transfer. 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Geophys. Res."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2008,4,27]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The albedo of marine stratocumuli depends upon cloud liquid water content, droplet effective radius (<jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>e<\/jats:italic><\/jats:sub>), and how these parameters vary with height. Using satellite data and shipborne data from the East Pacific Investigation of Climate (EPIC) Stratocumulus Study, this study investigates the cloud <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>e<\/jats:italic><\/jats:sub> vertical variation for drizzling and nondrizzling clouds. Visible\/near\u2010infrared retrievals from the NASA Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) are used to estimate the vertical profile of <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>e<\/jats:italic><\/jats:sub>. MODIS <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>e<\/jats:italic><\/jats:sub> observations and collocated shipborne scanning C\u2010band precipitation radar data show that <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>e<\/jats:italic><\/jats:sub> generally increases with height in nondrizzling clouds, consistent with aircraft observations. It is found that in clouds with precipitation rates greater than a few hundredths of a mm h<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup> the vertical gradient of <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>e<\/jats:italic><\/jats:sub> is significantly less than that in nondrizzling clouds and can become negative when the drizzle is heavier than approximately 0.1 mm h<jats:sup>\u22121<\/jats:sup>. High values of <jats:italic>r<\/jats:italic><jats:sub><jats:italic>e<\/jats:italic><\/jats:sub> at drizzling cloud base are consistent with estimates of the ratio of liquid water in the drizzle drops to that in the cloud droplets. 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