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J. Environ. Stud."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,5]]},"abstract":"The declining North Sumatra\u2019s Lake Toba water level caused PT Inalum to request BRIN to replenish\nthe lake through cloud seeding to meet the electrical power production. Cloud seeding was conducted\nfrom April 1 to 29, 2021, during the transition of rainy and dry seasons. The Piper-Cheyenne aircraft\nequipped with CoSAT-1000 hygroscopic flares departed Silangit Airport for the daily seeding missions.\nThe seed clouds are selected carefully to meet seeding criteria using radar monitoring. Evaluation\nof activity results using rainfall data taken from GSMaP data using the Target Only Statistical Method.\nActual and historical rainfall data (2001\u20132020) are taken from GSMaP data. According to this study,\nprecipitation has increased by 36.3%. The spatial distribution of rainfall demonstrates an upward trend,\nwith greater values observed in the eastern region of Lake Toba. Cloud seeding has also increased\nLake Toba\u2019s level by 8.5 cm. In addition, it has also produced an additional inflow of 5.29 m<sup>3<\/sup>\/second,\nequivalent to a water volume of 13,254,624 m<sup>3<\/sup>, comparable to 15,905,548.80 kWh. It is hoped that\nthe outcomes of this work will help provide food and energy security by supplying water to dams\nin Indonesia.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.15244\/pjoes\/190656","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]],"date-time":"2024-11-18T01:54:15Z","timestamp":1731894855000},"page":"5001-5015","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15244\/pjoes\/crossmarkpolicy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Hygroscopic Flare-Based Cloud Seeding\nto Increase Rainfall Over Lake Toba"],"prefix":"10.15244","volume":"34","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-5954-6312","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samsul","family":"Bahri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Heru","family":"Widodo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mahally","family":"Kudsy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sunu","family":"Tikno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tukiyat","family":"Tukiyat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Muhamad Djazim","family":"Syaifullah","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ardhi Adhary","family":"Arbain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jon","family":"Arifian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sutrisno","family":"Sutrisno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"5911","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref-1748633","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvs.2023.1181207"},{"key":"ref-1748634","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eist.2020.10.002"},{"key":"ref-1748635","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/rs13193815"},{"key":"ref-1748636","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/JAS-D-20-0200.1"},{"key":"ref-1748637","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-74897-x"},{"key":"ref-1748638","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos13060968"},{"key":"ref-1748639","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-21-16143-2021"},{"key":"ref-1748640","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1716995115"},{"key":"ref-1748641","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1917204117"},{"key":"ref-1748642","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2021EA001791"},{"key":"ref-1748643","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2480\/agrmet.D-14-00038"},{"key":"ref-1748644","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos12081013"},{"key":"ref-1748645","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2021.105768"},{"key":"ref-1748646","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e14974"},{"key":"ref-1748647","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/JAMC-D-18-0341.1"},{"key":"ref-1748648","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/w13182473"},{"key":"ref-1748649","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1029\/2018EA000424"},{"key":"ref-1748650","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos14071086"},{"key":"ref-1748651","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosust.2023.101300"},{"key":"ref-1748652","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s13143-023-00315-7"},{"key":"ref-1748653","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1051\/e3sconf\/202234603022"},{"key":"ref-1748654","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosres.2017.04.024"},{"key":"ref-1748656","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos14081227"},{"key":"ref-1748657","unstructured":"BPPT. Laporan Akhir Pelaksanaan Teknologi Modifikasi Cuaca di Daerah Tangkapan Air Danau Toba Provinsi Sumatera Utara Tahun 2021 - Tahap I (Periode 1-29 April 2021). Jakarta, 2021."},{"key":"ref-1748658","unstructured":"BEARE S., CHAMBERS R., PEAK S. Statistical modelling of rainfall enhancement Working Paper, Available online: https:\/\/ro.uow.edu.au\/cssmwp\/34 (accessed on 2 December 2023)."},{"key":"ref-1748659","unstructured":"HARYANTO U., GUNAWAN D., HARSANTI D. The Development of Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding Flare In Indonesia: Evaluation and Measurement of Distribution Particles. Bali, 2011."},{"key":"ref-1748660","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-16-0298.1"},{"key":"ref-1748661","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-17-0474.1"},{"key":"ref-1748662","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1175\/JCLI-D-16-0150.1"},{"key":"ref-1748663","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcrr.2022.09.002"},{"key":"ref-1748664","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-68268-9"},{"key":"ref-1748665","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.950"},{"key":"ref-1748666","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms15531"},{"key":"ref-1748667","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00382-019-04930-x"},{"key":"ref-1748668","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/2016JD025796"},{"key":"ref-1748669","unstructured":"BRIN L.P.T.M.C. Laporan Akhir Pelaksanaan Teknologi Modifikasi Cuaca Di Daerah Tangkapan Air Danau Toba Provinsi Sumatera Utara Tahap III. Jakarta, 2022."}],"container-title":["Polish Journal of Environmental Studies"],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.pjoes.com\/pdf-190656-116439","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.pjoes.com\/pdf-190656-116439","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T12:10:33Z","timestamp":1777291833000},"score":35.153675,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.pjoes.com\/Hygroscopic-Flare-Based-Cloud-Seeding-nto-Increase-Rainfall-Over-Lake-Toba,190656,0,2.html"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025]]}},"alternative-id":["190656"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.15244\/pjoes\/190656","ISSN":["1230-1485","2083-5906"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1230-1485","type":"print"},{"value":"2083-5906","type":"electronic"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,18]]},"assertion":[{"value":"Original research","name":"content_type","label":"Content type","group":{"name":"content_type"}},{"value":"Yes","name":"peer_reviewed","label":"Peer Reviewed","group":{"name":"peer_review","label":"Peer review"}},{"value":"Single blind","name":"review_process","label":"Review Process","group":{"name":"peer_review","label":"Peer review"}},{"value":"28 November 2023","name":"received","label":"Received","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication history"}},{"value":"30 June 2024","name":"accepted","label":"Accepted","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication history"}},{"value":"18 November 2024","name":"published_online","label":"Published Online","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication history"}},{"value":"5 July 2025","name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication history"}},{"value":"\u00a9 2024 Bahri et al.","name":"copyright","label":"Copyright","group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and licensing"}},{"value":"This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License (CC BY-NC\u00a04.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium for noncommercial purposes only, provided the original work is properly cited and its authors credited.","name":"license","label":"License","explanation":{"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"},"group":{"name":"copyright_and_licensing","label":"Copyright and licensing"}}]},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T10:35:42Z","timestamp":1789468542247,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Weather Modification Association","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0A test facility has been designed to provide a reproducible environment for combustion of flares and measurement of the resultant particles. The facility provides a simulation of the environment that a flare would encounter from an aircraft.\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0The facility was used to evaluate the concentrations, sizes and chemistry of many flares with different chemical formulations. Earlier studies of particle sizes produced by the South African flares indicated that a cooler burning flare could potentially produce larger particles. However, initial field studies in 2002 did not support this hypothesis. Small particles were dominant at both the beginning and end of the flare burn, when the burn was coolest,. In addition, comparison of the Ice Crystal Engineering (ICE) 65% and 70% potassium perchlorate- containing flares indicates that the 70% flare produced larger particles, despite having more oxygen present to yield a hotter burn.\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0The main characteristic of the production of particles by the flare during a burn is that the variations in the total concentration of the particles are small. However, the concentrations of larger particles (>1\u03bcm diameter) varies substantially during the individual flare burns and from flare to flare. The latter variations seems to be due to the manufacturing process, including variations in the chemical composition (mesh size, purity, reactions within chemical species, etc) and the cover tube the flare material is compressed in. These changes in the particle size need to be explored further.\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Comparisons among the particle spectra from the ICE 65, 70 and 80% KClO4 hygroscopic flares showed that an increase in the amount of the hygroscopic salt (KClO4) seem to slightly increase the number of larger particles. The larger proportion of the oxidizing salt gives a higher burning temperature, shifting the final size distribution towards larger particle sizes. Based on Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopy (SEM and TEM) analyses of the ICE 70% flare it seems that the larger particles produced by the flares are composed of aggregate mixtures of KCl and Ca(Cl)2 and are not single particles. Aggregation or coagulation of particles is thus the primary mechanism producing larger particles.\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Based on parcel modeling studies, the new ICE 70% flare produces substantially more drizzle drops at shorter times than the South African flare. After 1 minute, the new ICE flare initiates drizzle and concentrations of drizzle water reach a maximum, when the South African flare just starts producing drizzle size drops. In addition, the drizzle results in a more effective coalescence process, forming rain. Once drizzle is formed, the transformation to rainwater proceeds faster than with the original South African flares. After approximately 10 minutes, the new ICE flare produces nearly two orders of magnitude more drizzle water than the South African flare.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.54782\/001c.133112","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T15:19:19Z","timestamp":1769786359000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Evaluation of Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding Flares"],"prefix":"10.54782","volume":"44","author":[{"given":"Roelof T.","family":"Bruintjes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vidal","family":"Salazar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Trudi A.","family":"Semeniuk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Buseck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel W.","family":"Breed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jim","family":"Gunkelman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"33285","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,4,1]]},"container-title":["The Journal of Weather Modification"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journalofweathermodification.scholasticahq.com\/article\/133112-evaluation-of-hygroscopic-cloud-seeding-flares.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T15:09:50Z","timestamp":1776179390000},"score":33.198616,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journalofweathermodification.scholasticahq.com\/article\/133112-evaluation-of-hygroscopic-cloud-seeding-flares"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2012,4,1]]},"references-count":0,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.54782\/001c.133112","ISSN":["3071-2874","0739-1781"],"issn-type":[{"value":"3071-2874","type":"electronic"},{"value":"0739-1781","type":"print"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2012,4,1]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,24]],"date-time":"2026-03-24T00:00:39Z","timestamp":1774310439061,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"Pleiades Publishing Ltd","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2006,5,1]],"date-time":"2006-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1146441600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2006,5,1]],"date-time":"2006-05-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1146441600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.springernature.com\/gp\/researchers\/text-and-data-mining"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Izv. 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Gidrol., No. 1, 19\u201330 (1970)."}],"container-title":["Izvestiya, Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1134\/S0001433806030066.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/article\/10.1134\/S0001433806030066","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"http:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1134\/S0001433806030066","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"},{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/content\/pdf\/10.1134\/S0001433806030066.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T23:01:37Z","timestamp":1774306897000},"score":31.960045,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/10.1134\/S0001433806030066"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2006,5]]},"references-count":22,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2006,5]]}},"alternative-id":["3006"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1134\/s0001433806030066","ISSN":["0001-4338","1555-628X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0001-4338","type":"print"},{"value":"1555-628X","type":"electronic"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2006,5]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T14:42:10Z","timestamp":1787236930996,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"American Meteorological Society","issue":"7","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2010,7,1]]},"abstract":"Abstract<\/jats:title>\n It is shown here that hygroscopic seeding requires two orders of magnitude more hygroscopic agent than can be delivered by flare technology for producing raindrop embryos in concentrations to detect by cloud physics aircraft the microphysical signature of rain initiation. An alternative method of finely milled salt powder is shown to be capable of achieving this goal. During field experiments the use of a sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas tracer to identify the exact seeded cloud volume and to quantify dilution of the seeding agent showed that the seeding agent dilutes to the order of 10\u221210 of its released concentration in updrafts at a height of \u22651 km above cloud base. This means that the theoretically expected changes in the cloud drop size distribution (DSD) would not be detectable with a cloud droplet spectrometer in a measurement volume collected during the several seconds that the seeded volume is traversed by an aircraft. The actual measurements failed to identify a clear microphysical seeding signature from the burning of hygroscopic flares within the seeded convective clouds. This uncertainty with respect to hygroscopic flare\u2013seeding experiments prompted an experimental and theoretical search for optimal hygroscopic seeding materials. This search culminated in the production of a salt powder having 2\u20135-\u03bcm-diameter particle sizes that are optimal according to model simulations, and can be distributed from a crop duster aircraft. Such particles act as giant cloud condensation nuclei (GCCN). Any potential broadening of the DSD at cloud base by the competition effect (i.e., when the seeded aerosols compete with the natural ambient aerosols for water vapor) occurs when the seeding agent has not been substantially diluted, and hence affects only a very small cloud volume that dilutes quickly. Therefore, the main expected effect of the GCCN is probably to serve as raindrop embryos. The salt powder\u2013seeding method is more productive by two orders of magnitude than the hygroscopic flares in producing GCCN that can initiate rain in clouds with naturally suppressed warm rain processes, because of a combination of change in the particle size distribution and the greater seeding rate that is practical with the powder. Experimental seeding of salt powder in conjunction with the simultaneous release of an SF6 gas tracer produced strong seeding signatures, indicating that the methodology works as hypothesized. The efficacy of the accelerated warm rain processes in altering rainfall amounts may vary under different conditions, and requires additional research that involves both observations and simulations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1175\/2010jamc2307.1","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,4]],"date-time":"2010-03-04T11:00:41Z","timestamp":1267700441000},"page":"1548-1562","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":49,"title":["A Quest for Effective Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding"],"prefix":"10.1175","volume":"49","author":[{"given":"Daniel","family":"Rosenfeld","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Duncan","family":"Axisa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Atmospheric Research,* Boulder, Colorado"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William L.","family":"Woodley","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Woodley Weather Consultants, Littleton, Colorado"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ronen","family":"Lahav","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,7,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2020061306440700100_i1558-8432-49-7-1548-Beard1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1029\/GL013i010p00991","article-title":"Aircraft observations of large raindrops in warm, shallow, convective clouds.","volume":"13","author":"Beard","year":"1986","journal-title":"Geophys. 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Meteor."}],"container-title":["Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.ametsoc.org\/jamc\/article-pdf\/49\/7\/1548\/3556688\/2010jamc2307_1.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.ametsoc.org\/jamc\/article-pdf\/49\/7\/1548\/3556688\/2010jamc2307_1.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,7]],"date-time":"2020-12-07T18:01:30Z","timestamp":1607364090000},"score":31.625898,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.ametsoc.org\/doi\/10.1175\/2010JAMC2307.1"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,7,1]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2010,7,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1175\/2010jamc2307.1","ISSN":["1558-8432","1558-8424"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1558-8432","type":"electronic"},{"value":"1558-8424","type":"print"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,7,1]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T12:16:58Z","timestamp":1787314618535,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Weather Modification Association","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"Field experiments and computer modeling studies of the possibility to promote the coalescence process by hygroscopic seeding for rainfall enhancement are reviewed. Most previous experiments have focused on the use of water sprays or common salt particles, but the practical delivery of the massive bulk sources of these products has been a limiting factor. Although most past efforts have not provided convincing scientific evidence of seeding effects, they leave the impression that effects were generally consistent with the hygroscopic seeding hypothesis under investigation (i.e., broadening of the cloud droplet distribution, and triggering of coalescence which possibly alters echo morphology). Rainfall enhancement from hygroscopic seeding remains to be demonstrated. Seeding effects beyond those expected on the coalescence process may also be apparently possible. Effects on the initiation and evolution of ice may have been noted perhaps because of the enhanced presence of supercooled drizzle and rain drops, or because rime-splintering may have been enhanced by the presence of broader distributions of supercooled cloud droplet distributions in ice multiplication zones, or for perhaps both reasons. Indications of\u00a0 \u201cdynamic\u201d effects may have been found which possibly occurred either in conjunction with the latent heat of condensation, or from a more active conversion of supercooled water to ice, or for both reasons. Computer modeling has indicated that seeding at cloud base with appropriately sized cloud condensation nuclei to foster Langmuir-type precipitation growth trajectories may be a desirable seeding strategy, and that seeding does not necessary have to be limited to cold based clouds characterized by a marginal coalescence process. The use of \u201cnew\u201d hygroscopic seeding flares at cloud base in deep warmer-based South African clouds has produced very encouraging results from a limited amount of experimentation, and the new seeding flares have apparently overcome earlier problems associated with transporting the seeding materials. Thus, the technique of hygroscopic seeding deserves reexamination.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.54782\/001c.132870","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,30]],"date-time":"2026-01-30T15:17:16Z","timestamp":1769786236000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Review of Hygroscopic Seeding Experiments to Enhance Rainfall"],"prefix":"10.54782","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Robert R","family":"Czys","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roelof","family":"Bruintjes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"33285","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1994,4,1]]},"container-title":["The Journal of Weather Modification"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journalofweathermodification.scholasticahq.com\/article\/132870-a-review-of-hygroscopic-seeding-experiments-to-enhance-rainfall.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T15:07:22Z","timestamp":1776179242000},"score":30.627113,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journalofweathermodification.scholasticahq.com\/article\/132870-a-review-of-hygroscopic-seeding-experiments-to-enhance-rainfall"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[1994,4,1]]},"references-count":0,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1994]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.54782\/001c.132870","ISSN":["3071-2874","0739-1781"],"issn-type":[{"value":"3071-2874","type":"electronic"},{"value":"0739-1781","type":"print"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[1994,4,1]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,5]],"date-time":"2024-09-05T08:24:05Z","timestamp":1725524645505},"publisher-location":"Berlin, Heidelberg","reference-count":9,"publisher":"Springer Berlin Heidelberg","isbn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"9783540883012"},{"type":"electronic","value":"9783540883036"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-88303-6_31","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2009,1,9]],"date-time":"2009-01-09T14:59:37Z","timestamp":1231513177000},"page":"443-457","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effects of Intentional and Inadvertent Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding"],"prefix":"10.1007","author":[{"given":"Heike","family":"Noppel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Klaus D.","family":"Beheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"297","reference":[{"key":"31_CR1","unstructured":"Blahak, U.: Towards a better representation of high density ice particles in a state-of-the-art two-moment bulk microphysical scheme. 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Chem. Phys."],"abstract":"\n Precipitation enhancement may augment water resources, yet questions still remain as to the effectiveness of current cloud seeding strategies. One such strategy, hygroscopic seeding, is designed to accelerate collision-coalescence and eventually precipitation by creating a large droplet tail in the size distribution. In the traditional approach, particles are released at cloud base, typically through burning a flare. The effect of directly injecting a hygroscopic powder into a preexisting cloud has not been experimentally tested in controlled conditions. We performed experiments in the Michigan Tech Pi Chamber to determine how a steady-state liquid water cloud responds to injection of hygroscopic powders. Three materials were tested: jet-milled NaCl, a newly developed NaCl-TiO\n 2<\/jats:sub>\n core-shell material, and Arizona test dust as a non-hygroscopic control. Injection of the powders produced a local increase in liquid water content and stimulated formation of droplets up to 60\u2009\u00b5m in diameter. Analysis of relevant timescales indicates that NaCl particles with dry diameters between 4 and 25\u2009\u00b5m would be suitable for this application. These results demonstrate that in-cloud hygroscopic seeding can successfully generate large droplets that could accelerate warm rain processes, which supports reconsideration of in-cloud injection as a viable precipitation enhancement strategy alongside traditional cloud-base release, particularly for warm clouds in arid and semi-arid environments.\n <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-26-10881-2026","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T05:00:07Z","timestamp":1785906007000},"page":"10881-10891","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Response of a liquid water cloud to in situ hygroscopic seeding"],"prefix":"10.5194","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"James","family":"Simmons","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jesse","family":"Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Corey","family":"Bois","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hamed","family":"Fahandezh Sadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kadja Flore","family":"Gali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1084-7390","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suryadev Pratap","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrei","family":"Vakhtin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kurt","family":"Hibert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruce","family":"Boe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Youssef","family":"Wehbe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steve","family":"Krueger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0390-2424","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raymond A.","family":"Shaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9227-8701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Will","family":"Cantrell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0036rpn28","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Michigan Technological University (Houghton, United States of America)"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"corresponding-author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"3145","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","unstructured":"Anderson, J. 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Commun., 8, 15883, 10.1038\/ncomms15883, 2017.","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms15883"}],"container-title":["Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/acp.copernicus.org\/articles\/26\/10881\/2026\/acp-26-10881-2026.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T16:56:15Z","timestamp":1789923375000},"score":27.346113,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/acp.copernicus.org\/articles\/26\/10881\/2026\/"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]]},"references-count":29,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/acp-26-10881-2026","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794","asserted-by":"object"}],"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794-CC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794-RC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794-RC2","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794-AC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794-RC1","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794-RC2","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794-AC1","asserted-by":"object"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794-CC1","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["1680-7324"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1680-7324","type":"electronic"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T02:00:11Z","timestamp":1787018411022,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"American Meteorological Society","issue":"9","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,1]]},"abstract":"During the past decade, statistically positive results have been reported for four major, randomized hygroscopic seeding experiments, each in a different part of the world. Experiments on cold convective clouds using hygroscopic flares were carried out in South Africa and Mexico. Experiments on warm convective clouds using hygroscopic particles were carried out in Thailand and India. The scientific evidence for enhancing rainfall from convective clouds by hygroscopic seeding from these four randomized experiments is examined and critically assessed. The assessment uses, as a measure of proof of concept, the criteria for success of any cloud seeding activity that were recommended in the Scientific Background for the 1998 AMS Policy Statement on Planned and Inadvertent Weather Modifications, criteria that required both statistical and physical evidence.<\/jats:p>\n Based on a critical examination of the results of these four major, randomized hygroscopic seeding experiments, it has been concluded that they have not yet provided either the statistical or physical evidence required to establish that the effectiveness of hygroscopic seeding of convective clouds to increase precipitation is scientifically proven. The impressive statistical results from these experiments must be viewed with caution because, according to the proof-of-concept criteria, credibility of the results depends on the physical plausibility of the seeding conceptual model that forms the basis for anticipating seeding-induced increases in rainfall. The credibility of the hygroscopic seeding for microphysical effects hypothesis has been seriously undermined because it cannot explain the magnitude and timing of the statistically significant increases in precipitation that were observed. Theories suggesting that the microphysical effects of seeding-enhanced downdraft circulations to produce longer-lived clouds have been advanced; however, in the absence of any supporting physical or model evidence, they must be considered to be in the realm of speculation.<\/jats:p>\n These results do not alter this author's basic position; cloud seeding is advocated in situations where it is scientifically and operationally appropriate, and it is strongly recommended that an independent evaluation accompany each research or operational project in order that the science of weather modification benefit from the experience.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1175\/bams-84-9-1219","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,22]],"date-time":"2003-09-22T14:34:17Z","timestamp":1064241257000},"page":"1219-1230","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["A Critical Assessment of Hygroscopic Seeding of Convective Clouds for Rainfall Enhancement"],"prefix":"10.1175","volume":"84","author":[{"given":"Bernard A.","family":"Silverman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,1]]},"container-title":["Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.ametsoc.org\/bams\/article-pdf\/84\/9\/1219\/3734657\/bams-84-9-1219.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.ametsoc.org\/bams\/article-pdf\/84\/9\/1219\/3734657\/bams-84-9-1219.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,8]],"date-time":"2020-12-08T06:09:01Z","timestamp":1607407741000},"score":27.342382,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.ametsoc.org\/doi\/10.1175\/BAMS-84-9-1219"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,1]]},"references-count":0,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1175\/bams-84-9-1219","ISSN":["0003-0007","1520-0477"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0003-0007","type":"print"},{"value":"1520-0477","type":"electronic"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,1]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,5]],"date-time":"2024-08-05T23:38:44Z","timestamp":1722901124769},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"AIP","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2000]]},"DOI":"10.1063\/1.1361948","type":"proceedings-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2003,2,11]],"date-time":"2003-02-11T18:26:38Z","timestamp":1044987998000},"page":"639-642","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cloud liquid water content responses to hygroscopic seeding of warm clouds"],"prefix":"10.1063","volume":"534","author":[{"given":"S. S.","family":"Kandalgaonkar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"317","event":{"name":"The 15th international conference on nucleation and atmospheric aerosols","location":"Rolla, Missouri (USA)"},"container-title":["AIP Conference Proceedings"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,20]],"date-time":"2023-04-20T08:38:46Z","timestamp":1681979926000},"score":27.3246,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/pubs.aip.org\/aip\/acp\/article\/534\/1\/639-642\/570288"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2000]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1063\/1.1361948","ISSN":["0094-243X"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"0094-243X"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2000]]}},{"institution":[{"name":"EGUsphere"}],"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T17:25:40Z","timestamp":1789925140892,"version":"4.0.1"},"posted":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"group-title":"Clouds and Precipitation\/Laboratory Studies\/Troposphere\/Physics (physical properties and processes)","reference-count":0,"publisher":"Copernicus GmbH","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771804800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100005746","name":"Michigan Space Grant Consortium","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["n\/a"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["n\/a"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100005746","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"Abstract. Precipitation enhancement may augment water resources, yet questions still remain as to the effectiveness of current cloud seeding strategies. One such strategy, hygroscopic seeding, is designed to accelerate collision-coalescence and eventually precipitation by creating a large droplet tail in the size distribution. In the traditional approach, particles are released at cloud base, typically through burning a flare. The effect of directly injecting a hygroscopic powder into a preexisting cloud has not been experimentally tested in controlled conditions. We performed experiments in the Michigan Tech Pi Chamber to determine how a steady-state liquid water cloud responds to injection of hygroscopic powders. Three materials were tested: jet-milled NaCl, a newly developed NaCl-TiO2 core-shell material, and Arizona test dust as a non-hygroscopic control. Injection of the powders produced a local increase in liquid water content and stimulated formation of droplets up to 60 microns in diameter\u2014significantly larger than the background cloud droplet population. Analysis of relevant timescales indicates that NaCl particles with dry diameters between 4 and 25 \u03bcm would be suitable for this application. These results demonstrate that in-cloud hygroscopic seeding can successfully generate large droplets that could accelerate warm rain processes, which supports reconsideration of in-cloud injection as a viable precipitation enhancement strategy alongside traditional cloud-base release, particularly for warm clouds in arid and semi-arid environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794","type":"posted-content","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T12:25:47Z","timestamp":1771849547000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Response of a liquid water cloud to in situ hygroscopic seeding"],"prefix":"10.5194","author":[{"given":"James","family":"Simmons","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jesse","family":"Anderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Corey","family":"Bois","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hamed","family":"Fahandezh Sadi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kadja Flore","family":"Gali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1084-7390","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suryadev Pratap","family":"Singh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Andrei","family":"Vakhtin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kurt","family":"Hibert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bruce","family":"Boe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Youssef","family":"Wehbe","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steve","family":"Krueger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0390-2424","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raymond","family":"Shaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9227-8701","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Will","family":"Cantrell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0036rpn28","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}],"name":"Michigan Technological University (Houghton, United States of America)"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"corresponding-author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"3145","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,20]],"date-time":"2026-09-20T16:56:19Z","timestamp":1789923379000},"score":27.300833,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/egusphere.copernicus.org\/preprints\/2026\/egusphere-2026-794\/"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794","relation":{"has-comment":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794-CC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794-AC1","asserted-by":"subject"}],"has-review":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794-RC1","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/egusphere-2026-794-RC2","asserted-by":"subject"}],"is-preprint-of":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/acp-26-10881-2026","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.5194\/acp-26-10881-2026","asserted-by":"object"}]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]]},"subtype":"preprint"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T16:11:50Z","timestamp":1787242310265,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"American Meteorological Society","issue":"11","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J. 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Appl. Meteor."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1971,10]]},"DOI":"10.1175\/1520-0450(1971)010<1002:cseodd>2.0.co;2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,7,27]],"date-time":"2002-07-27T12:27:44Z","timestamp":1027772864000},"page":"1002-1005","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Cloud Seeding Effects on Different Daily Rainfall Amounts"],"prefix":"10.1175","volume":"10","author":[{"given":"T. L.","family":"Ogden","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"K. O. L. F.","family":"Jayaweera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"12","container-title":["Journal of Applied Meteorology"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.ametsoc.org\/doi\/pdf\/abs\/10.1175\/1520-0450%281971%29010%3C1002%3ACSEODD%3E2.0.CO%3B2","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,16]],"date-time":"2020-12-16T17:56:37Z","timestamp":1608141397000},"score":27.150066,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/journals.ametsoc.org\/doi\/10.1175\/1520-0450(1971)010<1002:CSEODD>2.0.CO;2"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[1971,10]]},"references-count":0,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1971,10]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1175\/1520-0450(1971)010<1002:CSEODD>2.0.CO;2"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1175\/1520-0450(1971)010<1002:cseodd>2.0.co;2","ISSN":["0021-8952"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0021-8952","type":"print"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[1971,10]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T02:50:33Z","timestamp":1790736633165,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"Copernicus GmbH","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,11]],"date-time":"2019-12-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1576022400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Atmos. Chem. Phys."],"abstract":"\n An airborne cloud seeding experiment was conducted over\nthe eastern coast of Zhejiang, China, on 4\u00a0September\u00a02016 during a major\ninternational event held in Hangzhou. In an attempt to reduce the likelihood\nof rainfall onset, a major airborne experiment for weather modification took\nplace by seeding hygroscopic agents to warm clouds to reduce cloud droplet\nsize. The effectiveness of seeding is examined, mainly for stratiform clouds\nwith patchy small convective cells. A radar-domain-index (RDI) algorithm was\nproposed to analyze the seeding effect. The threshold strategy and the\ntracking radar echo by correlation (TREC) technique was applied in the\ndomain selection. Factors analyzed include echo reflectivity parameters such\nas the mean and maximum echo intensity, the anomaly percentage of the grid\nnumber of effective echoes, the fractional contribution to the total\nreflectivities, and the vertically integrated liquid (VIL) water content during\nand after the seeding process. About 12\u2009min after seeding ended, the\ncomposite reflectivity of seeded clouds decreased to a minimum (<\u200910\u2009dBz) and the VIL of seeded clouds was \u223c0.2\u2009kg\u2009m\n \u22123<\/jats:sup>\n . The echo\ntop height dropped to \u223c3.5\u2009km, and the surface echoes were\nalso weakened. By contrast, there was no significant variation in these echo\nparameters for the surrounding non-seeded clouds. The seeded cell appeared\nto have the shortest life cycle, as revealed by applying the cloud-cluster\ntracking method. The airborne Cloud Droplet Probe (CDP) measured cloud\nnumber concentration, effective diameter, and liquid water content, which gradually\nincreased after the start of cloud seeding. This is probably caused by the\nhygroscopic growth of agent particles and collision\u2013coalescence of small\ncloud droplets. However, these parameters sampled at \u223c40\u2009min\nafter seeding decreased significantly, which is probably due to the\nexcessive seeding agents generating a competition for cloud water and thus\nsuppressing cloud development and precipitation. Overall, the physical\nphenomenon was captured in this study, but a more quantitative in-depth\nanalysis of the underlying principle is needed.\n <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.5194\/acp-19-14967-2019","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,11]],"date-time":"2019-12-11T04:41:42Z","timestamp":1576039302000},"page":"14967-14977","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Evaluation of hygroscopic cloud seeding in liquid-water clouds: a feasibility study"],"prefix":"10.5194","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Fei","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6737-382X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhanqing","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"corresponding-author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Qi","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gaili","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shuo","family":"Jia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jing","family":"Duan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuquan","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"3145","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albrecht, B. 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An airborne cloud seeding experiment was conducted over the eastern coast of Zhejiang, China, on 4 September 2016 during a major international event held in Hangzhou. In an attempt to reduce the likelihood of rainfall onset, a major airborne experiment for weather modification took place by seeding hygroscopic agents to warm clouds to reduce cloud droplet size. The effectiveness of seeding is examined, mainly for stratiform clouds with patchy small convective cells. A radar-domain-index algorithm (RDI) was proposed to analyze the seeding effect. The threshold strategy and the tracking radar echo by correlation (TREC) technique was applied in the domain selection. Factors analyzed include echo reflectivity parameters such as the mean and maximum echo intensity, the anomaly percentage of the grid number of effective echoes, the fractional contribution to the total reflectivities, and the vertically integrated liquid water content (VIL) during and after the seeding process. 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Cloud seeding is an exemplary alternative to enhance rainfall and thus increase the water resources in the region. The Regional Cloud Seeding Program of the National Center for Meteorology was initiated in 2022 to address this issue through glaciogenic and hygroscopic seeding of convective clouds over the southwest and central parts of KSA. However, to understand and improve the effectiveness of cloud seeding, it is essential to analyse the rainfall characteristics and cloud microphysical processes in the region. Given the unique combination of dry and hot background conditions, analysing their response is particularly important due to their sensitivity to any seeding activity in the region. High resolution numerical simulations are performed using the Weather Research and Forecasting model (WRF4.6) to investigate the microphysical and rainfall characteristics of convective clouds. 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Rain enhancement by artificial cloud seeding is widely used to increase water resource in arid and semi-arid regions. However, large uncertainties regarding cloud seeding and its effectiveness remain. This study proposes a novel approach for efficient rain enhancement of convective clouds with warm cloud base by combining glaciogenic seeding with silver iodide (AgI) and hygroscopic seeding with cloud condensational nuclei (CCN). The numerical simulation experiments through the WRF model are systematically conducted and indicate that comparing to control (unseeded) experiment, the combination of an earlier hygroscopic CCN seeding in the low warm layers at a seeding rate of 1013 s\u22121 and the subsequent glaciogenic AgI seeding in the upper mixed-phase layers at a seeding rate of 0.09 g s\u22121 can increase the surface rainfall up to 57%, which is seven times higher than 7.97% in a single glaciogenic seeding and nearly three times higher than 20.74% in a single hygroscopic seeding, showing a much stronger rain enhancement rate in the new approach. It is found that the earlier hygroscopic seeding in warm cloud layers can greatly enhance the supercooled liquid water (SLW) content in cold cloud layers through updraft lifting and create a much more advantageous condition suitable for the subsequent glaciogenic cloud seeding. Moreover, the combined cloud seeding approach causes much stronger dynamic effect than any individual cloud seeding approach, and significantly enhances precipitation efficiency of convective clouds with warm cloud base. 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