The term Soviet architecture refers to architectural production on the territory of the former Russian Empire under the control of the Soviet power in the aftermath of the revolution of 1917, and in the USSR between its establishment in 1922 and its fall in 1991. In addition to Russian architecture, it includes a variety of other architectural traditions in national republics and autonomous districts. Somewhat simplistically, the history of Soviet architecture has traditionally been divided into three periods: the \u201cavant-garde\u201d (1917\u20131932), \u201csocialist realism\u201d or \u201cStalinism\u201d (1932\u20131955), and late modernism (1955\u20131991). The neat boundaries between these periods are provided by two political interventions in architecture. The first is the announcement of the results of the second round of the Palace of the Soviets competition (28 February 1932) followed by the Communist Party decree \u201cOn the Reconstruction of Literature and Artistic Organizations\u201d (23 April 1932), which abolished independent artistic groups and replaced them with the state-controlled Union of Soviet Architects. The second is the Communist Party decree \u201cOn Elimination of Excesses in Design and Construction\u201d (4 November 1955), which enunciated a turn to postwar modernism and standardization. This stylistically and politically motivated periodization reflected the lack of exchange between Soviet and Western architects and scholars during the Cold War. Indeed, while during the 1920s and the early 1930s, Soviet architects remained in dialogue with their international colleagues, in the late 1930s the ties were cut off, while the historicist turn inside the Soviet Union led to the discreditation of early modernist architecture. It was only in the 1960s, when the \u201cthaw\u201d in the Soviet Union and the activization of left politics in Europe (most importantly in Italy and France, which restored cultural and social connections with the Soviet Union) led to the \u201crediscovery\u201d of Soviet post-revolutionary architecture, which progressive European architects saw as an operative model for their own programs. During the 1970s, the formal aspects of avant-garde Soviet architecture came to the fore in Britain, where they inspired the work of visionary architects later celebrated as the \u201cdeconstructivists,\u201d while simultaneously being cleansed of their political and social program. The destabilization of the Soviet Union during the following decade and its eventual collapse led to the rise of political histories of Soviet architecture. All these historiographic traditions significantly favored the avant-garde over the subsequent period, when, it was believed, architecture had lost its autonomy and hence ceased to exist. More recent scholarship questions these assumptions as more and more projects and discussions from the Cold War period are coming to light, elucidating such topics as Soviet architects\u2019 progressive stance on ecology and the sociability of cities, their use of cybernetic methods in urban planning, and their structural and formal innovations, which situates them on par with their Western counterparts.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0060","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,25]],"date-time":"2021-10-25T14:17:47Z","timestamp":1635171467000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Soviet Architecture"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Soviet Architecture"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,25]],"date-time":"2021-10-25T14:17:48Z","timestamp":1635171468000},"score":11.252395,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0060.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0060","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]],"date-time":"2024-05-11T09:37:33Z","timestamp":1715420253029},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780190922467","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Berlin grew together out of two walled cites that formed a joint government in 1307; it was re-divided after the end of World War II, and reunified with the dismantling of the Berlin Wall in 1989. From the 1700s onwards, it has continuously been the center of major architectural developments in Germany and Europe. As a bearer of Enlightenment thought and Prussian nationalism, the Unter den Linden boulevard and its canonic neoclassical buildings took shape. With the establishment of the German Empire and Berlin as the imperial capital in 1870\u20131871, architecture and urbanism were put in the service of nationalism and imperialism while the German nation was usually defined as a superior race. During this time, Berlin was also an industrializing city, engendering not only the construction of urban and infrastructure projects, factory buildings, and the growth of industrial design, but also the uncontrolled urban expansion, overcongested tenement buildings, and housing shortages, which the Garden City movement was seen fit to resolve. Berlin blossomed during the Weimar Republic between 1919 and 1933, becoming the muse of authors theorizing modernity, mass culture, and metropolitan experience. The city also became a platform for European avant-garde movements and proponents of \u201cNew Building,\u201d associated with functionalist concerns, rationalization, social responsibility, and integration of new technologies, as well as large transparent surfaces and flat roofs. With the Weimar Constitution endowing every citizen the right to housing and tax revenues, the Garden City movement transformed into the Berlin Siedlungen (housing estates). Following the National Socialist takeover in 1933, Berlin served as Hitler\u2019s governing center as well as the target of his megalomaniac ambitions. The destruction during WWII and the subsequent severe housing shortage necessitated the immediate construction of apartment units in massive numbers, to which architects responded with new and polarized housing models. The Berlin Wall, constructed in 1961, soon became the iconic symbol of the Cold-War, while architecture shaped East and West Berlin\u2019s distinct identities. In the 1970s and 1980s, the growing interest in the historical fabric of European cities made Berlin a microcosm of international debates again, giving way to ideas such as social housing as urban renewal and \u201ccritical reconstruction,\u201d while exposing the racialization of guest workers. After the dismantling of the Berlin Wall, an unprecedented planning and construction boom followed for the reunification of divided Berlin and the building of its new architectural symbols. Memory debates called for the reckoning with Nazi violence or the reconstruction of the Prussian Empire\u2019s buildings as symbols of Germany\u2019s past, while racialized Muslim, Asian, and Black populations continued to face discrimination.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0072","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,25]],"date-time":"2022-05-25T08:10:51Z","timestamp":1653466251000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Architecture of Berlin"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Architecture of Berlin"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,25]],"date-time":"2022-05-25T08:10:51Z","timestamp":1653466251000},"score":11.226321,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0072.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0072","published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,7]],"date-time":"2024-07-07T17:55:58Z","timestamp":1720374958589},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780190922467","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Vernacular architecture refers to both a subject of study and a way of approaching that subject. Vernacular architecture studies emphasize the connections between the built environment and the people who interact with it, reflecting on the two-way nature of those relationships. People, sometimes known by name and sometimes anonymous, plan and erect buildings, but physical spaces also influence how groups and individuals use them. With this in mind, students of vernacular architecture often ask \u201cwhy\u201d questions, and they are likely to be interested in the entire life cycle of a building, its surroundings, and its interiors rather than just the moment of creation and exterior appearance. The scholarship on vernacular architecture contrasts with more typical architectural history in that it is concerned with the everyday. Ordinary buildings, landscapes, and interiors\u2014the type of things that don\u2019t often attract much attention\u2014are its primary focus. The formal study of vernacular architecture is a relatively new pursuit. While interest in old buildings goes back centuries, it was really in the 1970s that the field developed its current trajectory. In the works that follow, architect-designed buildings are the exception rather than the rule. In terms of methodology, the unifying approach\u2014regardless of type, date, or construction\u2014involves fieldwork, which can mean documenting buildings and spaces through photography and the creation of measured drawings, as well as documenting the human experience through oral history and ethnographic methods. Documentary sources also play an important role in the study of vernacular architecture, especially when the subject involves the more distant past. The study of vernacular architecture is multidisciplinary. The authors of the following books, articles, and websites come from a variety of academic backgrounds, including art history, history, folklore, anthropology, archaeology, cultural geography, architecture, landscape architecture, and urban planning, among others. Some teach in the academy, but others work at museums and historic sites, cultural resource management firms, historic preservation offices, and other governmental entities. In North America, the Vernacular Architecture Forum (VAF) is the preeminent organization for the study of vernacular architecture. The VAF traces its roots, in part, to a similar organization, the Vernacular Architecture Group (VAG), which was established in England in 1952 with a focus on the British Isles.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0017","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]],"date-time":"2020-02-26T11:54:37Z","timestamp":1582718077000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Vernacular Architecture"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Cynthia","family":"Falk","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Vernacular Architecture"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:33:08Z","timestamp":1632425588000},"score":11.198474,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0017.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0017","published":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]],"date-time":"2024-05-11T09:37:19Z","timestamp":1715420239397},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780190922467","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The maritime Republic of Pisa was one of the central cities of Europe in the High Middle Ages. The port of Pisa was a gateway for international commerce and a junction for Mediterranean travel. Pilgrims, merchants and crusaders waited in Pisa for embarkations to North Africa and the Holy Land, making the city a multinational crossroads. Pisa\u2019s financial and political flowering was expressed in monumental architecture throughout the 11th to the 13th centuries. In the northwestern corner of the city, in today\u2019s Piazza del Duomo, the Late Antique Church of Santa Reparata was replaced by a grand Romanesque cathedral (1064). West of the cathedral a monumental round baptistery replaced an octagonal Late Antique one (1153), perhaps as homage to Pisa\u2019s participation in the First Crusade. In the 13th (or 14th century according to new scholarship) a monumental cemetery known as the \u201cCamposanto\u201d was built north of the cathedral. The great buildings of the Piazza were founded in the height of political and naval power in the 11th to 13th centuries, but received sculptural and fresco decoration even in the greatest time of turmoil until the end of the 15th century. In 1325 Pisa lost dominion over Sardinia and ultimately lost its freedom. Following a failed rebellion in 1405 the city was taken over by Florence. Despite the loss of power and even freedom artistic patronage in the Piazza continued. The art and architecture of the Piazza del Duomo monuments has been a major focus of scholarly attention. However, research has also addressed other medieval churches such as San Michele in Borgo (1016), San Matteo (1027 or 1028), San Paolo a Ripa d\u2019Arno and San Zeno (both documented after 1027), the Hospitaller octagonal church of San Sepolcro (c.\u00a01113) and the oratory of Santa Maria della Spina (founded 1230). Major scholarship has been dedicated to other aspects of Pisa\u2019s past\u2014commercial, social, religious, and political. Scholarship of these complementary historical issues is included here only when it pertains directly to architecture and urbanism. Research of architectural ornament\u2014especially sculpture and fresco\u2014also feature only when analyzed in the broader context of the building. Architectural furnishings in Pisa, such as Nicola Pisano\u2019s pulpit or Guido Bigarelli da Como\u2019s font in the baptistery, are some of the most celebrated pieces of Italian sculpture. Scholarship of these often directly complements the study of their respective architectural settings.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0061","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,25]],"date-time":"2021-10-25T14:16:33Z","timestamp":1635171393000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Architecture of Pisa"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Architecture of Pisa"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,25]],"date-time":"2021-10-25T14:16:34Z","timestamp":1635171394000},"score":11.186017,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0061.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0061","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]],"date-time":"2024-05-11T09:37:37Z","timestamp":1715420257354},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780190922467","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Shanghai\u2019s architectural and urban history has long been linked to the city\u2019s prominent role in regional and global trade. Its official designation as a market town (zhen\u9547) and market city (shi\u5e02) in 1074 and 1159, respectively, may be attributed to its location along the Huangpu River within the shifting flows of the Yangtze River delta and its adjacency to the Grand Canal and coastal shipping routes. Over time, increased, water-based commercial activity fueled extensive diking and dredging efforts as well as the construction of the city\u2019s original walls in 1554 to defend against pirates\u2014constraints that also produced a dense urban fabric composed in part by an array of diverse forms of residential and commercial architectural expression. By the mid-nineteenth century, Shanghai\u2019s status as an important regional port prompted its identification by British officials as one of five Qing ports to be opened to British trade in 1843 following the first Opium War. During its subsequent, one-hundred-year existence as an international treaty port, Shanghai further developed into a center of modern Chinese\u2014and global\u2014architectural production through continued flows of capital, goods, and people, particularly a cosmopolitan community of craftspeople, contractors, architects, and engineers from numerous parts of China and around the world. Much of the existing architectural historical scholarship on Shanghai has focused on this treaty-port era, the city\u2019s reemergence after the advent of economic reforms in 1978 as a shipping, financial, and cultural capital, and its current, continued expansion as one of the world\u2019s largest metropolitan areas. There exist fewer scholarly accounts of the city\u2019s architectural development prior to 1843 or after 1949, when Shanghai lost its status as a hub for architectural culture to Beijing even as it remained an important Chinese industrial center. The bibliography of Shanghai architecture reflects the ebb and flow of the city\u2019s status as a global commercial entrep\u00f4t amid the various political and economic shifts that have roiled China over the course of the twentieth century. It has been organized into historical periods and thematic and typological categories in an effort to capture the many ideas, forms, styles, and iterations at play in the city\u2019s built environment over time.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0078","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,24]],"date-time":"2022-09-24T08:26:01Z","timestamp":1664007961000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Architecture of Shanghai"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,26]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Architecture of Shanghai"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,24]],"date-time":"2022-09-24T08:26:02Z","timestamp":1664007962000},"score":11.17774,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0078.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,26]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0078","published":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]],"date-time":"2024-05-11T09:37:26Z","timestamp":1715420246923},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780190922467","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Beijing (also known as Peking in older romanization of Mandarin Chinese) is the current capital city of the People\u2019s Republic of China. It is one of the six great ancient capitals of China, the other five being Xi\u2019an, Luoyang, Kaifeng, Nanjing, and Hangzhou. Given the long Chinese history and compared to other ancient capitals, Beijing is relatively young. It served as the capitals for the last three imperial dynasties, the Yuan (1279\u20131368), the Ming (1368\u20131644), and the Qing (1644\u20131911), as well as the Beiyang period of the Republic China (1912\u20131927). During the 10th to 13th centuries when the north and south were split, it served as capital for the northern regimes of the Liao and Jin empires, both of which were founded by non-Chinese-speaking peoples, the Khitan and the Jurchen respectively. Before the unification of China by the First Emperor of Qin in 221 bce, the capital for the Yan state of the Spring and Autumn period (771\u2013476 bce) and the Warring States period (476\u2013221 bce) was also located in the Beijing area. During the period from the Qin dynasty to the Five dynasties (3rd century bce to 10th century ce), the area hosted the seats for prefecture-level local government under various names. Beijing means the Northern Capital. The current Beijing city was developed from the Ming-Qing imperial capital of the same name. The city was known by many different names in different historical periods. According to the Nine Provinces (Jiuzhou) division of the Xia and Shang dynasties (21st\u201311th centuries bce) in the Book of Documents (Shangshu), one of the Confucian classics that contains some of the oldest historical records of ancient China, Beijing belonged to the province of Youzhou. During the Zhou periods (11th\u20133rd centuries bce), it was known as Ji or Yandu, the Capital of the Yan State. As a prefecture-level city, it was known as Ji in the Qin dynasty (221\u2013206 bce), Guangyang in the Han dynasty (202 bce\u2013220 ce), and Yan during the Western Jin and the Age of Disunion period (220\u2013589). The area became the Zhuo county during the Sui dynasty (581\u2013618) and the You prefecture during the Tang dynasty (618\u2013906). It was called Nanjing, or the Southern Capital, in the Liao dynasty (907\u20131125), and Zhongdu, or the Middle Capital, in the Jin dynasty (1115\u20131234). Under the Mongol rule of the Yuan dynasty, the city, called Dadu, the Great Capital, became the capital of an enormous empire unifying the north and the south for the first time. During the early years of the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1402 and during the late years of the Republic period from 1928 to 1949 when the city was not the national capital, it was called Beiping. Like the name, the specific location of the city also kept changing in history. The current location of the central city was anchored during the Yuan dynasty with a minor shift to the south during the Ming reconstruction. The history of architecture in Beijing can be traced back to the prehistoric time. Archaeologists have discovered tombs and remains of dwellings from about ten thousand years ago. Extant buildings in the Beijing area, however, are no earlier than the Liao dynasty. Literatures on architecture of Beijing are mostly dispersed in books on Chinese architecture in general or of a specific dynasty, period, regime, type, or religious tradition, which are not included in this bibliography. Books written specifically on the architecture of Beijing concentrate on the late imperial to the modern period. Some of them are typologically focused, for instance, on Buddhist temples; others are case studies on significant buildings, complexes, or urban elements, for instance, the Forbidden City, Chang\u2019an Avenue, Tiananmen Square, etc. Some historical documents, for instance the local gazetteers, contain important information on the architecture and urban space of Beijing, which are also included in the following lists. Some specialized studies on the folkways and traditional urban life of Beijing are closely related to architecture and the urban space, for instance the traditional theater and the hutong life, which are classified under the last category.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0067","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,23]],"date-time":"2022-02-23T18:37:14Z","timestamp":1645641434000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Architecture of Beijing"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Architecture of Beijing"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,23]],"date-time":"2022-02-23T18:37:15Z","timestamp":1645641435000},"score":11.159878,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0067.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0067","published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T20:30:52Z","timestamp":1770755452108,"version":"3.50.0"},"edition-number":"1","reference-count":0,"publisher":"Bloomsbury Publishing","isbn-type":[{"value":"9781350059757","type":"electronic"},{"value":"9781350059740","type":"print"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"DOI":"10.5040\/9781350059757.1029","type":"other","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,30]],"date-time":"2025-06-30T07:09:22Z","timestamp":1751267362000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Pioneers: Swiss Women in Architecture, Interior Architecture, Landscape Architecture"],"prefix":"10.5040","author":[{"given":"Katia","family":"Frey","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"2984","container-title":["Women in Architecture"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T17:06:04Z","timestamp":1770743164000},"score":11.147415,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.bloomsburyvisualarts.com\/encyclopedia-chapter?docid=b-9781350059757&tocid=b-9781350059757-1029"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025]]},"ISBN":["9781350059757","9781350059740"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5040\/9781350059757.1029","published":{"date-parts":[[2025]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,17]],"date-time":"2025-10-17T14:23:44Z","timestamp":1760711024512},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780190922467","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Railroad station architecture reflects several disparate concerns. Born of the new technology of steam power, railroads (\u201crailways\u201d in British parlance) revolutionized travel and affected passengers\u2019 sense of time and distance. Combined with the unfamiliar mechanical vibration of engine, wheels, and rails, the great speed of trains\u2014up to 30 miles per hour in the early years\u2014made train travel psychologically stressful. The passenger station needed to present a familiar and reassuring face, and architectural styles were chosen to suggest stability and safety, and perhaps adventure as well. At the same time, the large station acted as a crowd control device, guiding arriving and departing passengers past each other while providing for the efficient handling of luggage and freight. The most provocative literature on railroad architecture treats the station as the gateway to this new set of experiences\u2014as symbol of modernity, as an influence on the form and development of cities, and as the birthplace of corporate identity programs. Railroad stations partook of the revivalist styles of their day while in active dialogue with the engineering structures to which stations were largely subordinate from the railroad companies\u2019 perspective. In the twentieth century, railroad station design provided important lessons for the architects of bus depots and airports. As those transportation systems matured, passenger railroading declined, at least in the United States. Publications of the time reflect interest in historic preservation and the adaptive reuse of railroad stations in the 1970s and beyond.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0077","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,26]],"date-time":"2022-06-26T07:53:15Z","timestamp":1656229995000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Architecture of Train Stations"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,27]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Architecture of Train Stations"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,26]],"date-time":"2022-06-26T07:53:16Z","timestamp":1656229996000},"score":11.067534,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0077.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,27]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0077","published":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,27]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]],"date-time":"2024-05-11T09:52:53Z","timestamp":1715421173337},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780190922467","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The designation \u201cRepublican\u201d refers to the Roman political period, traditionally dated between 509 and 31 bce. Roman Republican architecture is understood as the product of the built environment in the city of Rome as well as the territory controlled by Romans during this period. Scholarship on Roman architecture in general has focused on building typology; structure, materials, and construction techniques; and design and urbanism\u2014all frequently with an interest in historical context. The study of the Republic has incorporated these traditions, but analysis of the physical remains is often restricted, due to the much degraded state of many early monuments; thus, critical study of ancient textual sources is often crucial, and study of the historical or cultural context of architecture sees increased attention. There is an equally strong\u2014and recently deepened\u2014interest in sociologically and anthropologically informed study of the use and experience of architecture and its effects on Roman society. The best-known aspects of architecture from the period include the construction of monumental temples in stone and terracotta at first, and later incorporating stone entablatures, roofs, and eventually concrete from foundations to superstructure. As for the geographical extent of Roman territory (both political and cultural), it was rarely static and in some cases is poorly understood; furthermore, Romans were frequently in contact with communities and cultures around them, so in some cases it is essential to look outside of Roman territory to understand Roman Republican-era architecture. This bibliography is not meant as a digest of buildings, but rather, after General Overviews and Reference Works, it covers various important topics in the field. As a whole, though, the citations have been assembled in a way that there should be at least one key source on most of the major monuments of the Roman Republic. The bibliography is limited to Italian territory, though the reader will find some references to Roman architecture from wider Mediterranean territories that Rome controlled by the mid-2nd century. Furthermore, the study of Republican architecture is necessarily tied to archaeological excavations, yet this is not a bibliography of Roman archaeology. Thus, although some seminal studies of individual monuments and excavations appear, most works are on the discipline of architectural history and questions related to it, rather than on sites and their excavation. More so than for the period of the Empire, the study of Republican architecture has been dominated by Italian scholarship, with some important work by French and German scholars. Anglophone interest has been infrequent until recently, so scholarship in English presents only a spotty picture of the state of the field. This bibliography is purposefully focused on English-language scholarship, but for some areas, works in foreign languages are essential for study beyond introductory material.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0026","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]],"date-time":"2020-02-26T11:56:48Z","timestamp":1582718208000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Roman Republican Architecture"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"John","family":"Hopkins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Roman Republican Architecture"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:33:55Z","timestamp":1632425635000},"score":11.061125,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0026.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0026","published":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]],"date-time":"2024-05-11T09:37:49Z","timestamp":1715420269060},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780190922467","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
In its most generally accepted sense, Brutalism refers to the architecture of the late 1950s through the 1970s that is primarily identified by an expressive use of exposed concrete. While the precise characterization of the works associated with this label is still in flux, wavering between a focus on their form, their materiality, their visual impact, and even their ethical intent, the common denominator of brutalist architecture remains that of the primary material employed. This accepted characterization of Brutalism as a stylistic category has tended to obscure the complex history of the notion. This brief introduction thus focuses on the brutalist trajectory, with the goal to consider its discursive origins, its competing iterations, and its contemporary interpretation. There is a broad consensus to the effect that the notion first emerged in England in the early 1950s within a circle of architects, artists, and critics who shared a new sensibility toward the material and visual culture of postwar Britain. The discourses and practices emerging from this circle were encapsulated under the label of the \u201cNew Brutalism.\u201d Most historians also agree that by the end of the 1950s, the idea and its descriptors\u2014New Brutalism, Brutalism\u2014and the adjective brutalist began to move beyond Britain to appear in print in continental Europe and beyond. Severed from its original context, the idea was applied to different architectural cultures. By the late 1960s it was clear that a significant shift had occurred, with the idea of Brutalism now primarily associated with the architecture of exposed concrete, which was perceived as an international phenomenon. Central to this new conception was Le Corbusier\u2019s Unit\u00e9 d\u2019habitation at Marseilles (1945\u20131952) and its expressive use of b\u00e9ton brut, which came to be viewed as the primary source of brutalist architecture. Any serious investigation of Brutalism in architecture must therefore take into account that this umbrella term refers to two distinct yet interrelated phenomena. From the 1970s to the 1990s, Brutalism in architecture was little discussed in the historiography. The architecture of exposed concrete\u2014to which it came to be associated\u2014was generally subjected to negative criticism, even outright rejection. The tide began to turn at the end of the 1990s, and since the new millennium, Brutalism as an idea and an architecture has now become a serious topic for scholarly investigation. In parallel with aesthetic considerations, some scholars have also explored its social and political underpinnings, making connections with the rise of the welfare state in Western countries. This renewed interest coincided with a new appreciation, even affection for brutalist buildings in all their manifestations, triggering passionate campaigns to re-evaluate and protect a wide range of buildings. Yet the scholarly scrutiny of recent years has also shown that the historical assessment of Brutalism, and the precise characterization of the architecture to which it is associated, is still open to debate.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0087","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,23]],"date-time":"2023-06-23T04:24:00Z","timestamp":1687494240000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Brutalism in Architecture"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"R\u00e9jean","family":"Legault","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,23]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Brutalism in Architecture"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,23]],"date-time":"2023-06-23T04:24:00Z","timestamp":1687494240000},"score":11.061125,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0087.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,23]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0087","published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,23]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,23]],"date-time":"2024-05-23T00:31:47Z","timestamp":1716424307697},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780190922467","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
What is the relationship between architecture and emotions? The answer may lie in Winston Churchill\u2019s famous 1943 statement: \u201cwe shape our buildings and afterwards our buildings shape us.\u201d But there is more to this relationship than this statement suggests. Researchers who seek to examine this relationship now have access to a large body of scholarship that includes phenomenology, affect theory, emotional geography, and atmospheric experience. The key contribution of this body of scholarship lies in its stress on embodiment and \u201clived space\u201d of architecture, rather than the physical space. But they largely universalize the body and see the relationship between architecture and emotions through various nature\/culture, culture\/biology, and reason\/emotion divides. They also treat emotions as just another category of (historical) analysis. Histories of emotions (and the senses) have been problematizing these reductive views and ways of analysis since the 1980s. They operate on two main claims: emotions both make history and have history. The word \u201cemotion\u201d itself is a product of the nineteenth century, before which there were \u201cappetites,\u201d \u201cpassions,\u201d \u201caffections,\u201d or \u201csentiments.\u201d These two claims have led to the groundbreaking observation that the relationship between architecture and emotions is not given once and for all; this relationship changes over time and the same building can evoke different emotions in diverse people depending on their gender, age, occupation, ethnicity, previous experiences, and so on. This observation has precedence in the work of feminist scholars of the city, interested in geographies of fear. As early as the 1990s, these scholars emphasized people\u2019s diverse and changing experiences of urban environments. Historians of emotions have expanded upon this scholarship through stressing the temporal and cultural dimensions of emotions, the interrelation between emotions and the senses, and the relationship between architecture and emotions as being biocultural, rather than directional. They endeavor to make the exploration of uncertainties and \u201cfeeling differently\u201d an important part of the research practice. It is no longer acceptable to make distinctions between good or bad architecture, between cause and effect, or to argue that we can re-experience the past. The relationship between architecture and emotions is diverse, plural, changing, and laden with feelings of otherwise. An exploration of this changing and unstable relationship should become a scholarly practice that will help us learn more about the buildings as well as the societies they were built in and lived through.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0097","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,22]],"date-time":"2024-05-22T02:51:09Z","timestamp":1716346269000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Architecture and Emotion"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Sara","family":"Honarmand Ebrahimi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,23]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Architecture and Emotion"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,22]],"date-time":"2024-05-22T02:51:09Z","timestamp":1716346269000},"score":11.05277,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0097.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,23]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0097","published":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,23]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,11]],"date-time":"2025-02-11T05:22:57Z","timestamp":1739251377751,"version":"3.37.0"},"publisher-location":"London","standards-body":{"name":"BSI British Standards","acronym":"BSI"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"BSI British 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architecture"],"issued":{"date-parts":[[null]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3403\/30391535u"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]],"date-time":"2024-04-29T12:41:25Z","timestamp":1714394485614},"publisher-location":"Taylor & Francis Group, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742","reference-count":5,"publisher":"CRC Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9781439811139","type":"print"},{"value":"9781439811146","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"DOI":"10.1201\/9781439811146-6","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,9]],"date-time":"2017-06-09T08:32:40Z","timestamp":1496997160000},"page":"37-45","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Architecture Is Architecture Is Architecture"],"prefix":"10.1201","member":"301","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"p_n_3","volume-title":"The Zachman Framework: A Primer for Enterprise Engineering and Manufacturing","year":"2003"},{"key":"p_n_5","volume-title":"The Zachman Framework: A Primer for Enterprise Engineering and Manufacturing","year":"2003"},{"key":"p_n_7","volume-title":"The Zachman Framework: A Primer for Enterprise Engineering and Manufacturing","year":"2003"},{"key":"p_n_9","volume-title":"The Zachman Framework: A Primer for Enterprise Engineering and Manufacturing","year":"2003"},{"key":"p_n_12","volume-title":"The Zachman Framework: A Primer for Enterprise Engineering and Manufacturing","year":"2003"}],"container-title":["The SIM Guide to Enterprise Architecture"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/www.crcnetbase.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1201\/9781439811146-6","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,9]],"date-time":"2017-06-09T08:33:49Z","timestamp":1496997229000},"score":10.987744,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.crcnetbase.com\/doi\/10.1201\/9781439811146-6"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,9]]},"ISBN":["9781439811139","9781439811146"],"references-count":5,"alternative-id":["10.1201\/9781439811146-6","10.1201\/9781439811146"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1201\/9781439811146-6","published":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,9]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,5]],"date-time":"2022-04-05T22:11:35Z","timestamp":1649196695891},"publisher-location":"London","standards-body":{"name":"BSI British Standards","acronym":"BSI"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"BSI British Standards","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"DOI":"10.3403\/30391535","type":"standard","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,26]],"date-time":"2020-11-26T21:30:12Z","timestamp":1606426212000},"approved":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,26]]},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Active assisted living (AAL) reference architecture and architecture model"],"prefix":"10.3403","member":"1988","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,26]],"date-time":"2020-11-26T21:30:19Z","timestamp":1606426219000},"score":10.986764,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/linkresolver.bsigroup.com\/junction\/resolve\/000000000030391535?restype=standard"}},"subtitle":["Reference architecture"],"issued":{"date-parts":[[null]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3403\/30391535"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]],"date-time":"2024-05-11T09:37:35Z","timestamp":1715420255667},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University 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Buddhist architecture in China encompasses a vast and diverse range of buildings spanning more than fifteen hundred years, from the first centuries ce, when Buddhism was introduced into China, and extending through the 21st century. The three main forms of Chinese Buddhist architecture\u2014temples, pagodas, and cave shrines\u2014evolved from Indian precedents, the knowledge of which was imported into China alongside the religion. These three building types are all distinct in form and construction, contributing significantly to the richness of the Chinese architectural tradition. Because the earliest surviving timber-frame buildings in China are all Buddhist, the history of Chinese Buddhist architecture is in many ways synonymous with the history of Chinese architecture. Most of the surviving early wooden buildings are located in North China, with a particularly high concentration on Mount Wutai in Shanxi Province. These buildings were researched by the first group of Chinese architectural historians who formed the Society for Research on Chinese Architecture (Zhongguo Yingzao Xueshe \u4e2d\u570b\u71df\u9020\u5b78\u793e) in the early 20th century, and are the starting points for students of Chinese architectural history. Over the course of Chinese history, Buddhist architecture went through several significant developments; scholars have only begun to scratch the surface of Buddhist architecture after the Mongol-ruled Yuan dynasty (1279\u20131368), especially with regard to non-imperial buildings. Considerable regional variation is also exhibited Buddhist architecture, and much more work needs to be done in relation to architecture outside the main economic and political centers of the country in the north and southeast.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0073","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,25]],"date-time":"2022-05-25T08:11:50Z","timestamp":1653466310000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhist Architecture in Imperial China"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Buddhist Architecture in Imperial China"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,25]],"date-time":"2022-05-25T08:11:50Z","timestamp":1653466310000},"score":10.968685,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0073.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0073","published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]],"date-time":"2024-05-11T09:37:11Z","timestamp":1715420231081},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780190922467","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The idea of withdrawal from secular society was central to the notions of monasticism and monastic architecture. The word derives from \u03bc\u03cc\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 (m\u00f3nos, Greek for \u2018alone\u2019). Christian monasticism made its first traceable appearances at the end of the 3rd century in Egypt and Palestine, though we know little of its architecture at this early stage. The eremitic ideal of the solitary saint retained its appeal, but was soon complemented by cenobitic monasticism where likeminded male or female ascetics joined together in communities that built architecture that was used in common. Monasticism as a religious form of life is found in Buddhism, Islam, and other traditions, though this essay will emphasize the medieval West, where monasteries were popular beginning in the 5th century. The various orders or congregations formulated differing architectural responses to their needs. The 9th-century Plan of Saint Gall, for example, represents an ideal meant to inspire emulation. Some monasteries were designed only for their resident populations of monks or nuns, while others might accommodate lay brothers or sisters, serfs, parish communities, visiting pilgrims, or dignitaries. A number of cathedrals across Europe were in fact monastic, following most often the Augustinian rule. The cenobitic monastery typically provided spaces for worship (church), sleeping (dormitory), dining (refectory), and meeting (chapter house) for the resident community, as well as buildings for reception and accommodation of visitors and other more functional structures (stables, storage barns, forges, mills, etc.). Monastic communities varied in size and might be very small or quite large. Some were found near or within urban locations, while others commanded large agricultural lands, including dependent parishes and granges. A survey of monastic architecture must therefore include industrial and hydraulic structures such as mills and dams, storage structures such as barns, dependent priory and farm buildings, and buildings for the care of the sick and infirm. Bibliography on monastic architecture is often divided regionally, and often focuses upon the church rather than the entire complex. Scholarship has privileged the architecture of certain orders\u2014Cluniac Benedictines, Cistercians, and Franciscans, for example\u2014over the more than five hundred monastic orders and congregations that once existed during the European Middle Ages. Archival research, architectural analysis, and archaeology are all contributing to a broader picture of the range and diversity of monastic architecture for male, female, and double houses. Traditional approaches to medieval architecture and its decoration have been primarily formalist, anchoring stylistic observations upon church records read as building documents in order to establish chronologies. While this approach remains important, new approaches such as stone-for-stone recording, C-14 dating of lime mortar and plaster, and dendrochronology, as well as the scientific study of painted layers and 3D modeling, are reshaping the history of medieval buildings. Together with archaeological analysis, early-21st-century work is examining the longer and more complicated cultural biographies of buildings and sites. This more integrated approach has recognized that architecture is not merely a reflection of monastic reform, but rather plays a strategic role in shaping it.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0024","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]],"date-time":"2020-02-26T11:58:32Z","timestamp":1582718312000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Architecture of Monasteries"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Sheila","family":"Bonde","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Clark","family":"Maines","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Architecture of Monasteries"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:35:10Z","timestamp":1632425710000},"score":10.964126,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0024.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0024","published":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]],"date-time":"2024-05-11T09:37:52Z","timestamp":1715420272288},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780190922467","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Thomas Jefferson (b. 1743\u2013d. 1826), the author of the Declaration of Independence and third president of the United States, is widely recognized as one of the founding voices of American democracy. He was also a celebrated Enlightenment thinker reading in and even contributing to bourgeoning fields of inquiry, including botany and other natural sciences, agricultural improvement, archaeology, political economies, modern languages, and many others he deemed \u201cuseful.\u201d Often characterized as the first American architect, he was deeply engaged in the project of architecture both as a private interest and as a public necessity; a well-educated citizenry, he believed, was one conversant in the fundamentals of the arts, most especially in architecture. Jefferson\u2019s commitment to race hierarchies meant that such a citizenry excluded people of color. His most important public designs were those for the nascent democracy in his home state of Virginia\u2014the capitol building in Richmond and the University of Virginia\u2014but his contributions to architecture and planning of the federal city of Washington, DC, are also important. Monticello, the residence on his home plantation, and Poplar Forest, his retreat villa also on a plantation, each consumed much of the remainder of his architectural energies, besides consulting with peers on the designs of their own houses. Although he had no formal education in architecture, he was very familiar with those books\u2014most especially Palladio\u2019s Four Books of Architecture, but others as well\u2014that offered training in the fundamentals of the classical tradition. The substantial collection of Jefferson\u2019s drawings betrays his dependence on accepted antique and modern models and adhering to established principles of order and proportion in the creation of new forms. He declared disinterest in aesthetic theory and his highest priority in his architectural design was to offer rightly proportioned and detailed models for an American audience he found lacking in taste. To that end, Jefferson played a critical role in laying the foundations of architecture as a discipline in the new nation. He corresponded with all the most important architects working in the new United States: Pierre Charles L\u2019Enfant, Benjamin Latrobe, and William Thornton, among others. His influence also extended to many younger designers and builders; Jefferson mentored Robert Mills, often recognized as the first American-born professional architect, and he also played a key role in training William Blackburn and other prolific builders in early-19th-century Virginia. The bulk of his architectural drawings can be found in the collections of the University of Virginia and the Massachusetts Historical Society.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0091","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,25]],"date-time":"2023-10-25T12:49:43Z","timestamp":1698238183000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Thomas Jefferson and Architecture"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Louis","family":"Nelson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Thomas Jefferson and Architecture"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,25]],"date-time":"2023-10-25T12:49:44Z","timestamp":1698238184000},"score":10.958455,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0091.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0091","published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]],"date-time":"2024-07-23T07:40:21Z","timestamp":1721720421385},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780190922467","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The architecture of Hong Kong is the built environment contained within the present-day Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR) of China, which also matches the former British Colony of Hong Kong at its largest extent. The region\u2019s architecture, and the literature about it, can be divided into several phases. Pre\u2013urban architecture of the territory consists of buildings built before the British occupation of Hong Kong Island in 1841, as well as later architecture produced in a traditional manner afterwards. This architecture is largely a regional vernacular reflection of broader Chinese traditions. The second phase of Hong Kong architecture is the early colonial phase, from the British cession of the island, through the expansion of the territory to include Kowloon in 1860 and the New Territories in 1898, up to the Second World War. This phase is characterized by the importation of Western building types and technologies and the implementation of colonial planning in the shaping of the city. This era can be subdivided into an initial commercially driven and fairly organic phase, a reshaping of key aspects of the city from around the time of Queen Victoria\u2019s Diamond Jubilee, and a third phase of subsequent transformation in the early twentieth century defined by increasing influence of technologies such as concrete and electricity. Hong Kong\u2019s architecture can also be neatly subdivided into two eras since the Second World War. The 1940s through the 1970s were characterized by rebuilding after war and the Japanese occupation, and dramatic expansion, particularly needed to accommodate a massive influx of population in the form of refugees from mainland China. In reaction to the latter, the development of public housing estates and the eventual founding of new towns is particularly significant in the history of Hong Kong. The immediate postwar phase is also accompanied by industrial growth. Around 1980, the city\u2019s economic transformation from a manufacturing center to a hub of global commerce and investment would also have dramatic repercussions. The creation of landmark corporate modernist buildings by globally renowned architects in the 1980s, followed by an intensification of real estate speculation, sets the tone for the city of high-rise architecture that exists today.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0027","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]],"date-time":"2020-02-26T11:57:25Z","timestamp":1582718245000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Architecture of Hong Kong"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Johnathan","family":"Farris","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Architecture of Hong Kong"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,23]],"date-time":"2024-07-23T07:01:21Z","timestamp":1721718081000},"score":10.955454,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0027.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0027","published":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,11]],"date-time":"2024-05-11T09:37:14Z","timestamp":1715420234976},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780190922467","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
\u2018South Asia\u2019 is a term used for the Indian subcontinent after its rearrangement into several independent nations in the mid-20th century. It includes the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Most of these countries have roots in common, shared history and culture, and very frequently, they have been part of the same empires\u2014for example under the Mauryas, or the Mughals. The region is home to several faiths, the birthplace of the Indic religions of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. In addition, the region has a long-standing presence of Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Sikhism, and Zoroastrianism. The entire region has rich architectural traditions, with various geographical and cultural zones employing their own regional idioms of construction while also participating in much larger aspirational architectural styles. Exploring a span from the Indus Valley civilization in the Bronze Age (3rd and 2nd millennia bce) to the modernism of new nations in the 20th century, there are several works that center on the architectural history of South Asia. While there are some journals that are dedicated to the architectural and art history of South Asia, there are others that include architectural history of South Asia significantly though the publication might have a slightly different focus. Most monographs are dedicated to specific periods, geographies, and themes. Because of the identity politics of the modern nations in South Asia, most architectural themes after 1947 (when the British left South Asia) are usually limited to each single nation, often not relating that nation\u2019s architecture to that of neighboring countries. However, books before 1947 tend to use \u2018India\u2019 as a generic civilizational term for the entire South Asian region, and not just the nation state of India. This bibliography deliberately leaves out several kinds of publications such as archaeological reports, volumes in which architecture is only one of the many cultural facets, common textbooks that are usually introductory surveys of both architecture and art, and monographs that are narrowly focused on period and place.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0052","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,23]],"date-time":"2021-02-23T15:37:43Z","timestamp":1614094663000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Architecture of South Asia"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Pushkar","family":"Sohoni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]]},"container-title":["Architecture, Planning, and Preservation"],"original-title":["Architecture of South Asia"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:39:23Z","timestamp":1632425963000},"score":10.950156,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780190922467\/obo-9780190922467-0052.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]]},"ISBN":["9780190922467"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780190922467-0052","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]]}}],"items-per-page":20,"query":{"start-index":0,"search-terms":"Architecture"}}}