It is difficult to speak of a distinctive \u201cTaiwanese\u201d Buddhism since the majority of the population in Taiwan is ethnically Han Chinese and the mainstream form of Buddhism in Taiwan is of the Han Chinese Buddhist tradition. With political democratization in the late 1980s, restriction on religious expression was lifted and various Buddhist groups of both foreign and local origins became active. Consequently different Buddhist traditions such as Theravada Buddhism, Japanese Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, etc. can now be found in Taiwan. The current Buddhist landscape in Taiwan is relatively diverse. In regard to English translation of names or titles in this article, it is necessary to note that romanization is a contentious issue in Taiwan. While the Pinyin Romanization is popular worldwide, people in Taiwan may use a number of other systems for Romanization. In this bibliography, the English names published by a person or an organization will take precedence; otherwise, the Pinyin Romanization will be used.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0277","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,25]],"date-time":"2022-05-25T08:11:33Z","timestamp":1653466293000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism in Taiwan"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism in Taiwan"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,25]],"date-time":"2022-05-25T08:11:34Z","timestamp":1653466294000},"score":17.157742,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0277.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0277","published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:52:07Z","timestamp":1714729927453},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Secularization is a major theoretical concept with its own paradigm in different scholarly fields, including the study of religion. While there are several uses and definitions of the term, it has generally referred to a cultural process in which religious institutions lose authority and religion has declining relevance for the individual. Conceptually, \u201csecular\u201d has been viewed as the opposite of \u201creligious,\u201d and \u201csecularism\u201d as an ideology expressing the idea of separating state from religion. Scholars of religious studies (and scholars of Buddhism) have begun challenging this binary, suggesting processes of secularization to also reinforce the importance of the \u201creligious\u201d within society and culture so that religion is revitalized. Others have underlined the necessity of using the concept as relevant tool in the comparative study of religion. Secularization is typically used as an explanatory concept related to the modernization processes of the 18th\u201319th centuries, which was a period characterized by Enlightenment thinkers, rationality ideals, functional differentiation, and\/or general disenchantment of the world. But the concept also reflects postmodern and global transformations in recent decades, which have had further effects on the continuing decrease of religious authority in some regions. Some of the elements of secularization can be traced much further back in history. Critical reflections on religious assertions, the humanization of cosmologies, and the desacralization of the world were known in early Axial religions, not least Buddhism. As a religion questioning its own epistemological assumptions, Buddhism did not, however, relativize its own institutional importance, but rather established the sangha as a religious organization balancing between monastic religiosity and criticism of (traditional) religion. The reform Buddhism of the 19th century also had elements of proto-secular Buddhism, formulated by important Buddhist figures such as Anagarika Dharmapala (b. 1864\u2013d. 1933), Taixu (b. 1890\u2013d. 1947) and D. T. Suzuki (b. 1870\u2013d. 1966). Spokesmen of this \u201cmodern Buddhism\u201d claimed that the religion was convergent with natural physics, Darwinian evolution, humanism, and individualism, seeing modernity as an inspiration for renewal and reformation. Interpretations of Buddhist ideas and practices in the light of modern ideals beyond traditional religious worldviews have been further developed in the transformation of these ideas and practices to Western settings. What has sometimes been called \u201csecular Buddhism\u201d is one such phenomenon, deconstructing what is seen as traditional or cultural elements while at the same time contributing new ideas and practices. Another kind of state-sanctioned and forced secularism can be seen in the policies of Communist China, where Buddhism (and all religion) was previously officially removed from society and in reality banned from the public sphere. In Japan, religious crises have forced Buddhist communities and organizations to rethink their own role in an increasingly secular society. With negative demographic developments in Buddhist Asia, new generations of Buddhists will decline in numbers, and, combined with increased individualization and decreasing religious authority, Buddhism in Asia will probably continue to experience aspects of secularization, even though the Eurocentric connotations of the concept are not directly transferable, the religious and cultural patterns in Asia are diverse, and secularization is not necessarily an irreversible development.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0268","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,25]],"date-time":"2021-05-25T07:40:54Z","timestamp":1621928454000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Secularization of Buddhism"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Secularization of Buddhism"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:40:37Z","timestamp":1632426037000},"score":17.114027,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0268.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0268","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:52:41Z","timestamp":1714729961621},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
A chronological approach is used in this bibliographic article in sequencing emergent categories and concepts as they appear in history, although technically what is understood as \u201cHinduism\u201d as practiced today did not exist prior to Buddhism. Hinduism and Buddhism are terms framed by modern understandings of religion that delineate a coherent set of beliefs, texts, and practices, according to theorists of the \u201cmaterialist turn\u201d in religious studies. This argument is borne out in this bibliographical article. In the lived experience, the lines that delineate \u201cHinduism\u201d and \u201cBuddhism\u201d are porous. As research into Hinduism and Buddhism progresses, interesting intersections and influences challenge categories. The examination of the relationships between Hinduism and Buddhism increasingly takes into account the interpenetrating influences of geography, history, and cultures that problematize any attempt at a discrete view of each religion. This selective record of texts and studies of Hinduism and Buddhism reflects the relationships and interpenetrating influences that continue to shape the field. There are very early texts that provide a history of the field\u2019s beginnings. These texts are of perennial interest in that they provide a view of the foundations of the studies into Hinduism and Buddhism, for example, James George Jennings, The Ved\u0101ntic Buddhism of the Buddha: A Collection of Historical Texts Translated and Edited by J.G Jennings (1947). As the field progresses, the categories of research increase in number and overlap. In this regard, there are various comparative categories and any number of entries may fit into any number of these categories. Nevertheless, an attempt is made to find the most conducive category for each entry.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0273","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,23]],"date-time":"2022-02-23T18:24:58Z","timestamp":1645640698000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism and Hinduism"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism and Hinduism"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,23]],"date-time":"2022-02-23T18:24:58Z","timestamp":1645640698000},"score":17.097652,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0273.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0273","published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T05:30:48Z","timestamp":1771392648021,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The central inquiry that has preoccupied scholarship on Chos\u014fn Buddhism revolved around the question of whether Chos\u014fn Buddhism was indeed a period of degeneration and stagnation, oppressed by the Neo-Confucian regime throughout the Chos\u014fn dynasty (1392\u20131910). Consequently, interest in Chos\u014fn Buddhism developed relatively late, partly due to the assumption that it had grown moribund, primarily due to successive anti-Buddhist government policies. For an extended period, this account prevailed and fostered a simplistic characterization of Chos\u014fn as a pro-Confucian and anti-Buddhist society. Among Korean Buddhist scholarship, this narrative of decline is often viewed as a lingering legacy of colonial historiography produced by both Japanese and Korean scholars during the colonial period (1910\u20131945), who were trained to see Buddhism as a rational and philosophical \u201creligion\u201d and sought to justify the colonial agenda by portraying the late Chos\u014fn Buddhism to be rescued and revived. But interestingly, the negative sketch of Chos\u014fn Buddhism, such as superstitious, withdrawn, weak, and feminine, is also found even earlier than the colonial scholarship as these accounts were written by China-based Jesuit missionaries, such as Jean-Fran\u00e7ois R\u00e9gis (b.\u00a01597\u2013d.\u00a01640), and Western travelers and missionaries of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries who visited Chos\u014fn (e.g., Ernst Oppert, Arnold Henry Savage Landor, Isabella Bird, and James Gale to name a few). Yet, it was mainly through colonial historiography that these perceptions were consolidated and circulated through publications and education, subsequently internalized by the Korean intellectuals and the general public in the postcolonial era for several decades. Over the last two decades, however, studies on Chos\u014fn Buddhism have shown a burgeoning interest in uncovering the diverse spectrum of the sociocultural realities and lived experiences of Chos\u014fn Buddhism, challenging the previously held binary model and complicating the picture with greater nuance. By engaging with untapped source materials and diversified methodology, these newer scholarship emphasize the multivalent interpretations and the overlooked vibrancy, actors, and sources of Chos\u014fn Buddhism. Current scholarship also leans toward viewing Chos\u014fn Buddhism as an integral part of the plural religious landscape of Chos\u014fn, although the dependency between Neo-Confucianism and Buddhism has been more dominant. Another recent effort is a critical examination of the traditional periodization model in the study of Chos\u014fn Buddhism. Buddhist historians in Korea now advocate for sub-periodization based on meaningful Buddhist-driven historical perspectives, challenging the previous division that marked Chos\u014fn Buddhism before or after the Imjin War (1592\u20131598), which resulted in massive destruction, changes, and impact. Another noticeable change in this newer approach lies in the strong interest in late Chos\u014fn Buddhism and its reevaluation (roughly falling between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries).<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0294","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T04:33:59Z","timestamp":1771389239000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Chos\u014fn Buddhism"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Sujung","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Chos\u014fn Buddhism"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T04:33:59Z","timestamp":1771389239000},"score":17.097433,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0294.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0294","published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:49:43Z","timestamp":1714729783901},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Ambedkar Buddhism, or Navayana (\u201cnew vehicle\u201d) Buddhism, began on 14 October 1956 in Nagpur, India, when nearly 400,000 Dalits, formerly known as Untouchables, converted from Hinduism. Led by Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (b.\u00a01891\u2013d.\u00a01956), the anti-caste activist, lawyer, politician, and scholar, the new Buddhists soon numbered in the millions, growing most notably in the populous states of Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh but also in poor villages and urban neighborhoods throughout India, and among Dalit expatriates abroad. Ambedkar believed that the ideals of universal human rights, self-reliance, and non-violent struggle (expressed in the slogans \u201cliberty, equality, fraternity\u201d and \u201ceducate, agitate, organize\u201d) are grounded in the Dhamma, the ancient teaching of the Buddha. As Ambedkar gained recognition as a founding father of the Republic of India and principal draftsman of its Constitution, his Navayana Buddhism came to be identified as a form of socially engaged Buddhism, paralleling movements for self-determination and economic justice in Tibet, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Thailand. Further parallels to the Humanistic Buddhism of China and Taiwan, the Nichiren-inspired New Religions of Japan, and many engaged Buddhist organizations in the West have been analyzed by scholars. Ambedkar Buddhism is not well represented in mainstream Buddhist Studies, however, possibly because its focus on social change appears at odds with the traditional Buddhist emphasis on personal transformation. Some scholars regard Ambedkar\u2019s Navayana and other engaged Buddhist movements as a \u201cfourth yana\u201d or practice vehicle, in contrast with the individual path of Hinayana (Theravada) Buddhism, the messianic and missionary spirit of Mahayana Buddhism (including Pure Land and Zen traditions), and the ritualism and scholasticism of Vajrayana Buddhism.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0189","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,20]],"date-time":"2014-02-20T16:36:03Z","timestamp":1392914163000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Ambedkar Buddhism"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Christopher S.","family":"Queen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,30]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Ambedkar Buddhism"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:32:40Z","timestamp":1632425560000},"score":17.03309,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0189.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,30]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0189","published":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,30]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:52:10Z","timestamp":1714729930088},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Buddhism comprised 2.4 percent of the Australian population at the most recent census in 2016. While reflection on Buddhism\u2019s growth in Australia is recorded as early as 1961, the first major body of work in the field was documentation of the early history in Buddhism in Australia, 1848\u20131988 (Croucher 1989 [cited under History]). The study of Buddhism in Australia has grown since the 1990s, with a small number of books and academic theses now available. An edited volume, Buddhism in Australia: Traditions in Change (Rocha and Barker 2011) [cited under Overviews]) provides a significant addition in showcasing a broad range of work from researchers and leading teachers. \u201cBibliography: Buddhism in Australia\u201d (Fitzpatrick, et al. 2012 [cited under History]) provides a bibliography of all the works in the field that records more than ninety academic publications and forty other resources. A total of forty of these were completed between 2003 and 2012, and it would be reasonable to assume that approximately forty more have been added from 2012 to 2021, suggesting that there are now more than 175 studies relevant to this field. This review of key works in the field focuses on five areas: Overviews, History, Major Schools, Buddhist Identity, and Expressions of Buddhism. The history section ranges from historical overviews to community profiles, culminating in the exploration in \u201cThe Buddhist Council of Victoria and the Challenges of Recognizing Buddhism as a Religion in Australia\u201d (Cousens 2011 [cited under History]) on the efforts to encourage government recognition of Buddhism as a designated religion in Australia. As for many countries in Europe and North America, a wide range of Buddhist schools took root through various means, and examination of these has increased to enable the section on major schools to encompass at least one work on most major traditions, often by researchers who are also practitioners. Consideration of the diversity of Buddhist traditions represented in Australia leads into the section Buddhist Identity, which includes studies on both immigrant identity and conversion in relation to Buddhist practice. The final section contains references dealing with how aspects of Buddhist teachings have been expressed in practice, including feminism, engaged Buddhism, and incorporation into Australian education systems. \u201cWomen and Ultramodern Buddhism in Australia\u201d (Halafoff, et al. 2018 [cited under Expressions of Buddhism]) provides a valuable update and new perspective on the role of women in Australian Buddhist history, and The Buddha Is in the Street: Engaged Buddhism in Australia (Sherwood 2003 [cited under Expressions of Buddhism]) illustrates expressions of engaged Buddhism in the Australian context.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0272","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,30]],"date-time":"2021-09-30T12:14:20Z","timestamp":1633004060000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism in Australia"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,22]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism in Australia"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,30]],"date-time":"2021-09-30T12:14:20Z","timestamp":1633004060000},"score":17.001997,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0272.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,22]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0272","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,22]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:52:43Z","timestamp":1714729963461},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Buddhism in Africa is a very small research field. By its nature, most research is predominantly sociological, combining also social science and historical perspectives, analyzing the development of Buddhism in various African societies. While social-based studies are important in terms documenting the growth of Buddhism in Africa, research into Buddhism in Africa has, perhaps, a more significant role in establishing the field within the wider field of Buddhist studies. In this regard, research into Buddhism in Africa also contributes, in a small way, to the development of the broader decolonial field which foregrounds Asian and African developed epistemologies, not solely determined by Northern Hemisphere academia. Studies in Buddhism in Africa began in the late 20th century by South African academics. Since then, however, the field has developed. Recent research in Buddhism in Africa has attracted international scholars and Buddhism scholars from other African countries.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0285","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,25]],"date-time":"2023-09-25T07:27:59Z","timestamp":1695626879000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism in Africa"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"GJ","family":"Mason","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,25]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism in Africa"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,25]],"date-time":"2023-09-25T07:27:59Z","timestamp":1695626879000},"score":16.971388,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0285.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,25]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0285","published":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,25]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:49:52Z","timestamp":1714729792296},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
In Buddhist countries, abortion is not the controversial issue it is in the West. There is comparatively little public debate surrounding it, and, in marked contrast to the voluminous multidisciplinary literature available in the West, little has been published on the subject from a Buddhist perspective. Accordingly, there are gaps in the scholarly coverage, and the researcher familiar with Western studies on abortion is likely to be disappointed with the limited range of material currently available. The reasons for the comparatively low level of interest are not altogether clear, and the literature itself sheds little light on this question. One reason may be the greater reticence on the part of religious leaders in Buddhist societies to comment publicly on controversial issues. Buddhism is also less prescriptive in its ethico-religious rules than the Abrahamic traditions, and Buddhist monastics would rarely be called upon for advice or guidance by the laity on matters of abortion or family planning. Monks and nuns follow their own code of monastic law (Vinaya), which enjoins celibacy and prohibits them from any involvement in the taking of life, explicitly including abortion. The first of the five precepts followed by the laity also prohibits the taking of human life, and abortion is generally regarded as falling under this prohibition and therefore is considered morally wrong. Nevertheless, and despite the existence of restrictive laws in many countries, large numbers of abortions\u2014both legal and illegal\u2014are performed each year by Buddhists throughout Asia.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0198","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,5,7]],"date-time":"2014-05-07T18:16:18Z","timestamp":1399486578000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism and Abortion"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Damien","family":"Keown","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,4,28]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism and Abortion"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:26:15Z","timestamp":1632425175000},"score":16.971388,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0198.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,4,28]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0198","published":{"date-parts":[[2014,4,28]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:53:11Z","timestamp":1714729991082},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Kingship has been an important and contested element of realpolitik and rhetoric since the beginnings of Buddhism. Siddh\u0101rtha Gautama (fl. c. fifth century bce) is said to have been born a prince augured to either conquer or renounce the world, who chose the latter path. Those who follow the Buddha\u2019s example in \u201cgoing forth\u201d (Skt. ni\u1e63kr\u0101mati) from the world, join the monastic sangha and are then (theoretically) subject only to monastic law (Skt. vinaya) rather than state jurisdiction or its tax obligation. Yet, this \u201cgoing forth\u201d takes place within a society on which the sangha is largely dependent for donations, in return for which householders gain religious merit (Skt. pu\u1e47ya). This means that social support, from householders up to kings or emperors, is often negotiated within Buddhism, whether symbolically or in practice. This situation created a rich diversity of approaches to kings (whether seen as positive protectors of the dharma, negative causes of Buddhist decline, or a mixture of the two) that often expanded into ideal types, reached cosmic proportions, and affected real sangha-ruler relations (even to such extremes as Buddhist literature sanctioning either royal deification or regicide). Rulers down the millennia donated land to the sangha, and the important role of building stupas, temples, and monasteries (less often, nunneries) in the countries where Buddhism spread often announced Buddhism as a (if not the) state religion and a (re)new(ed) part of the landscape. Royal patronage was behind many countries\u2019 voluminous Buddhist canons, containing foundational conceptions of kingship, and the scriptoria and repositories necessary for their survival. The status of state religion cuts both ways though, and monarchs were often legitimized by Buddhism or controlled it, at times even persecuted it. Some rulers were ordained as monks or nuns, either after abdicating or during their reigns, while certain monastics ruled regions or countries\u2014further blurring the boundaries between the world and \u201cgoing forth\u201d from it. Buddhist kingship ideals also influenced modern states and either merged or conflicted with other societal or international values. This often led to a bureaucratic or ideological distancing of the state from Buddhist kingship metaphors, unless embracing them served national identity. This entry is divided into sub-entries on Early Buddhism, then \u201cSouthern\u201d (toward the Therav\u0101da), \u201cEastern\u201d (mostly Mahayana) and \u201cNorthern\u201d (predominantly tantric) Buddhist countries. Yet, traditions can persist (unacknowledged) within later, more popular movements, and geographic typologies collapse at various meeting points and times in Buddhist Asia.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0281","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]],"date-time":"2023-03-20T06:22:14Z","timestamp":1679293334000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism and Kingship"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Lewis","family":"Doney","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,23]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism and Kingship"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]],"date-time":"2023-03-20T06:22:16Z","timestamp":1679293336000},"score":16.966272,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0281.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,23]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0281","published":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,23]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:53:22Z","timestamp":1714730002147},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Decoloniality is a relatively recent area of research in Buddhist studies. While there are a few studies dating from the early 2000s, since 2019 there has a marked increase of research in the field. Despite the recent increase in publications, however, the field is still very new. As such, this article\u2019s focus is on very recent research. The research from earlier centuries is virtually nonexistent. However, this article will be updated as the field grows year-on-year. Decoloniality in Buddhist studies is still \u201cfinding its feet,\u201d as it were, as evidenced by certain recurring issues that will be corrected over time. For example, many publications conflate the terms decolonial and postcolonial. Only a handful of publications apply decolonial theory, while the majority revert to postcolonial theorists. Nevertheless, the focus on decoloniality in Buddhist studies is to be welcomed. Emerging from the colonial research area of Oriental studies in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Buddhist studies has largely still retained the categories set by Oriental studies, preferring to view Asia religions as unified by core sets of beliefs and texts. Decolonial research in Buddhist studies focuses more on practices and indigeneity, thereby releasing or \u201cdelinking\u201d Buddhist research from the emphasis on central beliefs and texts set by early colonial research. Decolonial theory makes the point that religion through the lens of belief was a particularly \u201cNorthern\u201d or colonial approach to studying religions that caused the \u201cOther\u201d as religious subject to be defined and categorized by colonial authorities. Decoloniality aims to \u201crescript\u201d epistemology according to a \u201cSouthern\u201d perspective.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0283","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,23]],"date-time":"2023-05-23T12:36:35Z","timestamp":1684845395000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Decoloniality and Buddhism"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"GJ","family":"Mason","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Decoloniality and Buddhism"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,23]],"date-time":"2023-05-23T12:36:36Z","timestamp":1684845396000},"score":16.966272,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0283.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0283","published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:48:49Z","timestamp":1714729729647},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Although Buddhists and Muslims have interacted for more than a millennium across the length and breadth of Eurasia, there has been relatively little scholarly work on this particular religious encounter. Why scholars have overlooked this meeting is certainly an important question; however, it is one that is beyond the scope of this bibliography. Nevertheless, one can note that scholarship often creates artificial boundaries of study that obscure the messy realities of lived human experience. Indeed, it is presumably on account of various scholarly frameworks\u2014such as nation-states, area studies, linguistic specializations, and even disciplines\u2014that the history of Buddhist\u2013Muslim interaction has largely been ignored. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, however, because these conceptual frameworks have come under increasing scrutiny, new chapters of human history are beginning to be explored, and one of these is the meeting between the worlds of Buddhism and Islam. Work in this field is still very much in its infancy, and thus what follows is not a conventional annotated bibliography surveying centuries of scholarship; rather, it is simply an overview of some of the available scholarly literature on the meeting of Buddhists and Muslims in both the past and present across various regions of Asia.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0050","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,2,14]],"date-time":"2012-02-14T18:19:56Z","timestamp":1329243596000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism and Islam"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Johan","family":"Elverskog","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,1,11]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism and Islam"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:35:47Z","timestamp":1632425747000},"score":16.933655,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0050.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2012,1,11]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0050","published":{"date-parts":[[2012,1,11]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:49:06Z","timestamp":1714729746643},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Buddhism in India comprises a vast array of traditions, institutions, doctrines, and literatures. It flourished on the Indian subcontinent for some 1,700 years, from its origins in the 5th century bce to its effective disappearance from most regions in the 13th century. The early tradition rapidly evolved monastic institutions, and during its first five or so centuries expanded from its birthplace in the north throughout much of the subcontinent. Within the schools and monastic culture of the Indian Buddhism of this period, and possibly as early as the 1st century bce, a number of movements developed that emphasized the importance of the bodhisattva and the scriptural authority of particular texts. Adopting the label Mahayana (Great Vehicle), these movements distinguished their emphases from those of the Buddhist mainstream (referred to as Mainstream Buddhism in modern scholarship). The Mahayana, apparently of marginal influence for a number of centuries, itself became progressively mainstream from the 5th or 6th century onward. By the end of the 7th century, tantric approaches to meditation and ritual emerged as a self-conscious tradition. Referring to itself as the Vajray\u0101na (Thunderbolt Vehicle), over the following centuries it increasingly came to dominate Indian Buddhist praxis. Scholarship on Buddhism in India almost matches the size and diversity of its subject. Recent research has been fascinated with issues of origins, whether of early Buddhist ideas and practices, the Mahayana, or tantric traditions. There has also been an emphasis on the importance of understanding the social, cultural, and historical contexts of texts and traditions, and a recognition of the value of epigraphic and archaeological sources of evidence. And, increasingly, studies are exploring the influence of the wider non-Buddhist religious, cultural, and political environments within which Buddhism in India was always embedded.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0107","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]],"date-time":"2013-03-19T17:59:28Z","timestamp":1363715968000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism in India"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Anthony","family":"Tribe","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism in India"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:33:28Z","timestamp":1632425608000},"score":16.933655,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0107.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0107","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:48:19Z","timestamp":1714729699829},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Buddhism reached Tibet relatively late, around the 7th century, and within a few centuries it became the dominant religion on the Tibetan plateau. Tibet continued to receive transmissions of texts and practices from India until approximately 1500 ce, and thus received the full flowering of Indian Buddhism, particularly the tantric or Vajray\u0101na form of Buddhism that developed in India around the 7th century. The first transmission of Buddhism to Tibet took place with the support of the imperial government, and it continued until disrupted in the mid-9th century by the collapse of the Tibetan empire. This first transmission constitutes the basis of all of the Tibetan Buddhist traditions, as a number of exoteric Buddhist works such as sutras were translated into Tibetan at this time. The \u201cAncient\u201d Nyingma (rnying ma) school of Buddhism also claims that its secret Tantric teachings were also transmitted to Tibet at this time. The process resumed with the second or \u201clatter\u201d transmission (phyi dar) of Buddhism to Tibet, which resulted in the formation of the \u201cNew\u201d (gsar ma) schools of Tibetan Buddhism, the Geluk, Kadam, Kagy\u00fc, Jonang, and Sakya traditions. With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, Tibetan Buddhism began to spread in Central Asia and China. With the diaspora of Tibetan lamas following the Chinese occupation of Tibet in the 1950s, Tibetan Buddhism has spread throughout the world and has become one of the most influential forms of Buddhism on the global stage.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0166","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,6,7]],"date-time":"2011-06-07T14:40:38Z","timestamp":1307457638000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism in Tibet"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"David","family":"Gray","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,9,13]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism in Tibet"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:33:19Z","timestamp":1632425599000},"score":16.927229,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0166.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,9,13]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0166","published":{"date-parts":[[2010,9,13]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:51:09Z","timestamp":1714729869551},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Theoretical works pertaining to the birth and development of modern nationalism have a strong focus on Europe and the Americas. This is due to the axiomatic contention that nationalism originated in the West and only later spread to Asia and Africa in the course of European colonialism and imperialism. Such a conventional approach, positioning nationalism as the outcome of homogenizing historical processes in the fields of economy, education, print-capitalist culture, and industrial social organization, tend to overlook the significance of primordial ethno-religious loyalties for the emergence of nationalism. Buddhism, the dominant religion in large parts of East, South, and Southeast Asia, has played a crucial role in Asian nationalist movements. Given the close connection between Buddhism and traditional precolonial polities, particularly Burma (Myanmar) and Sri Lanka, it is not surprising that Buddhism was used to arouse nationalist sentiments against foreign powers, and that it contributed to new forms of national integration in the postcolonial period. It may be even argued that purely secular nationalism, without a major admixture of religious movements, has been rare in Asia. The identification of Western domination with Christianity, for example, gave rise to nationalist movements in mainland Southeast Asia to defend traditional cultural values in the midst of a process of social and economic modernization. Buddhists often embraced nationalism in the name of modernity. Regarding Buddhism as part of their indigenous heritage, Buddhists developed national pride. In Sri Lanka and Burma, Buddhism was identified with the history of the nation, and thus this religion was promoted as a tool to defend the nation against Western colonialism. In Thailand, the only noncolonialized country in Southeast Asia, Buddhism has constituted a pivotal pillar of \u201cofficial state nationalism\u201d since the late 19th century. In China, Buddhists also used their religion to counterbalance the challenges of Western cultural encroachments. In neighboring Japan, which actively embraced Western civilization, Buddhists tried to prove, in a defensive manner, that Buddhism represented a religious practice essential to Japanese cultural identity. In Korea, under Japanese colonial rule since 1910, and in Tibet, considered as part of China since the Qing dynasty, a Buddhist nationalism had to develop its own identities as distinct from Japanese and Chinese Buddhism, respectively. In the increasingly transnational, globalized world of the 21st century, Buddhism still provides a source of legitimacy for the nation-state, and a source of national identity for the majority populations in several Asian countries, sometimes directed against non-Buddhist (Muslim, Hindu, etc.) minorities perceived as cultural threats.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0249","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,11]],"date-time":"2018-01-11T08:57:22Z","timestamp":1515661042000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Buddhism and Nationalism"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Volker","family":"Grabowsky","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,11]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism and Nationalism"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:34:43Z","timestamp":1632425683000},"score":16.91427,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0249.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,11]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0249","published":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,11]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,7]],"date-time":"2026-02-07T20:06:15Z","timestamp":1770494775417,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Orientalists (Westerners who studied Asian cultures) arose in the period of European expansionism. Their passion was to produce knowledge of the languages, literatures, religions, and philosophies of the \u201cEast.\u201d The Palestinian American Edward Said (b.\u00a01935\u2013d.\u00a02003) was the first to theorize this activity, placing it within cultural and political studies with the argument that orientalism was a tool of Western global domination and manipulation. It was complicit with Western colonialism and distorted and restructured the \u201cEast\u201d in order to exert power over it. Said focused on the Middle East and Islam. He gave little credit to the agency of those who were the objects of orientalism and was dismissive of the motivation of orientalists. His argument was then extended by others to cover religions such as Buddhism. Saidian scholars of Buddhist history argued that orientalism mined Buddhism to serve Western interests, textualized and reified it, and even introduced to Buddhists the idea that their religious practice formed a separate \u201creligion.\u201d Said\u2019s argument forms the bottom line of the contemporary study of Buddhism and orientalism but has been contested, particularly by those who argue that the production of knowledge about Buddhism during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was neither the product of the dominant West nor Asia alone but rather of their interaction within the context of modernism. What is beyond doubt is that the activity of Western orientalists in these centuries gave birth to new formulations of Buddhism both in Asia and the West that have been given different labels: Protestant Buddhism, Buddhist Revivalism, Buddhist Modernism, Westernized Buddhism. This bibliography includes primary sources, namely the writings of orientalists up to the early twentieth century, and contemporary scholarship within the field of Buddhism and orientalism. It recognizes that not only Buddhist studies in the West but also some Western Buddhist communities were children of orientalism and are still influenced by it. However, it also recognizes that orientalist representations of Buddhism were diverse, influenced variously by Western rationalism and scientific method, Christian missionary activity, and Western interest in spiritualism, the esoteric, and the occult. It should be remembered that the items listed in each section are illustrative and not comprehensive.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0280","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,11]],"date-time":"2023-01-11T02:48:43Z","timestamp":1673405323000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Buddhism and Orientalism"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Elizabeth","family":"Harris","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism and Orientalism"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,11]],"date-time":"2023-01-11T02:48:43Z","timestamp":1673405323000},"score":16.838037,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0280.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0280","published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:52:30Z","timestamp":1714729950815},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Since 2000, Buddhist teachers of African descent have published personal testimonies and interpretations of dharma, often referencing the hegemonic racial and cultural dominance of white Buddhist communities. These texts have sought to be culture-specific, similarly to the cultural forms Buddhism adopted as the teachings spread through Southeast and East Asia, Tibet, Europe, and North America. While many interpretations of dharma in the United States in particular have downplayed the social sphere and emphasized individual enlightenment, Black Buddhists point out the highly racialized environment within which North Americans operate, and the specific harms enacted within majority-white Buddhist communities. Racialized (and gendered) bodies must be acknowledged and addressed in the quest for enlightenment, write Black Buddhists, in a wide range of academic and personal texts. A number of scholars and dharma teachers elaborate this argument by pointing out the emphasis on liberation in Buddhism and social justice movements as well as the unacknowledged Orientalist gaze that pervades Buddhist scholarship and communities in the United States. Finally, the movement toward including and celebrating cultural forms of Buddhism that uplifts Black cultural practices is gaining attention in popular publishing spheres. The texts included in this bibliography are divided between personal reflections, interpretations of dharma, texts on social justice, scholarly writings on gender, anthologies, Orientalist discourse that deconstructs whiteness in Buddhism, case studies of Black Buddhist communities, and popular commentaries by Black Buddhist writers.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0276","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,25]],"date-time":"2022-05-25T08:11:54Z","timestamp":1653466314000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism and Black Embodiment"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism and Black Embodiment"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,25]],"date-time":"2022-05-25T08:11:54Z","timestamp":1653466314000},"score":16.836452,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0276.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0276","published":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:50:47Z","timestamp":1714729847372},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Inasmuch as the Buddhist ideal is human perfection, ethics are a particularly important area. Ethics (\u015b\u012bla) is one of the three trainings (with insight and meditation) that lead to enlightenment. Ethics can be approached in several ways: many of the following works are \u201cnormative,\u201d seeking to establish which ethical principles are foundational and what conclusions one might draw from that concerning specific ethical problems (see Foundations, Early Buddhism, Madhyamaka, East Asian Traditions, and Tibetan Traditions). Some are \u201cmeta-ethical,\u201d reflecting on the overall nature of Buddhist ethics or the meaning of moral terms (see Nature of Buddhist Ethics). Some are examples of \u201capplied ethics,\u201d focusing on specific rules (see Early Buddhism and Vinaya). Some are \u201cdescriptive,\u201d telling us how people actually behave (see especially East Asian Traditions and Tibetan Traditions and the works under Perspectives on Contemporary Issues). Finally, some are \u201ccomparative,\u201d reflecting on what Western psychology or cognitive science can tell us about Buddhist moral judgments (see Phenomenology of Buddhist Moral Judgments and Buddhist Ethics and Cognitive Sciences).<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0235","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,28]],"date-time":"2016-11-28T09:20:43Z","timestamp":1480324843000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism and Ethics"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Daniel","family":"Cozort","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,28]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism and Ethics"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:29:38Z","timestamp":1632425378000},"score":16.817057,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0235.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,28]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0235","published":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,28]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:49:14Z","timestamp":1714729754179},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
In the mid-1960s there only were a few sentences about nuns and about the songs of the female elders (Ther\u012bg\u0101th\u0101) in a few of the books students of Buddhism then read on the religion, but there were no other references to or content about women or anything else pertaining to gender. By 2012, books and articles pertaining to Buddhism and gender had become too numerous to count, and no one scholar can be an expert on all topics pertaining to Buddhism and gender. What intervened to change this situation so drastically was the second wave of feminism and the paradigm shift in models of humanity that it engendered. Androcentric, single-sex models of humanity and scholarship in the generic masculine are no longer acceptable, though the battle for these changes was not easy. Now, newer scholarship routinely includes information about what women do and think religiously, and many books and articles specifically focus on women\u2019s roles and lives in all areas of the Buddhist world, ancient and modern, Asian and Western. Scholarship exploring masculinity\u2014what men do and think specifically as men rather than as humans\u2014has lagged behind significantly in Buddhist studies as in all other fields. Additionally, scholarship about less dominant sexual orientations is sparse. As a result, there is considerable overlap and confusion between the categories \u201cwomen\u201d and \u201cgender,\u201d and many assume that anything having to do with \u201cgender\u201d will in fact be about women. Many scholars now prefer the term \u201cgender,\u201d because everyone is gendered, whereas the term \u201cwomen\u201d denotes only one group of gendered human beings. Nevertheless, much research on gender still focuses on women. When women are in focus, closely related topics such as sexuality and parenting also receive more attention. Even though men are also sexual beings and parents, scholarship that does not focus specifically on gender or women tends to ignore these important topics. Because women\u2019s roles in societies are rapidly changing, there are also many calls for changes in their roles in Buddhism. Historically, Buddhism has been quite male dominated; much of its classical literature is highly androcentric, having little to say about women, and almost none of it is in women\u2019s voices. Modern Buddhists, both Western and Asian, are critical of this heritage. But as in every religion, traditionalists push back, resisting more-equal and equitable roles for women and more recognition of sexual minorities.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0146","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]],"date-time":"2013-03-19T17:59:28Z","timestamp":1363715968000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism and Gender"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Rita M.","family":"Gross","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism and Gender"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:27:16Z","timestamp":1632425236000},"score":16.802254,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0146.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0146","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:52:22Z","timestamp":1714729942937},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The study of Buddhism in Latin America, which had been lacking in other Western countries, has improved considerably in the last two decades. The main reason for the initial lack of attention is the numerically modest presence of Buddhists in the region. Buddhists are greatly outnumbered by members of the Catholic church and evangelical denominations, and there is a disproportionate focus by Latin American scholars who privilege topics related to Catholicism and Pentecostalism and tend to dismiss \u201cmarginal\u201d religions including Buddhism. Furthermore, European and North American scholars of religion are often less interested in issues related to Latin America. The present bibliography reflects this lack of attention. Due to the relatively small circle of researchers interested in the field, some authors appear more than once in the listed references. Since the topic of Buddhism in Latin America is not very popular, publishing companies are not very keen to bring such scholarship to the market. To compensate for this omission, the reader of this bibliography will find, in addition to monographs, collected works, chapters, and journal articles. a number of relevant academic theses. This variety of publication formats should not distract from the central fact that not all aspects of the issue are equaly represented by the existing literature. Some Latin American countries, as well as specific Buddhist traditions and schools, are overrepresented. While there are many publications regarding Buddhism in Brazil and\u2014to a lesser extent\u2014in Argentina and Mexico, available material regarding other countries is scarce. The same is true for transnational and regional studies. Among the Buddhist schools, Soka Gakkai has received the greatest attention. Zen and Tibetan Buddhism have also been studied in some detail, more so than other branches. Under these conditions, this bibliography is organized according to the main thematical focuses of the selected publications. Besides overviews of the research on Buddhism in Latin America mentioned in the the opening section, Research on Buddhism in Latin America, the sources are categorized under the primary headings Historically Orientated Studies, Geographically Orientated Studies, and Systematically Orientated Studies. In several cases, the association of a publication to one of these categorizations may be ambiguous. To add an essay about Soka Gakkai in Argentina in the first decades after its appearance under Systematically Orientated Studies, for example, is arbitrary and demands from a reader, particularly one who is interested in one specific category, to be alert for complementary suggestions in other parts of the bibliography.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0267","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,23]],"date-time":"2021-03-23T10:44:53Z","timestamp":1616496293000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism in Latin America"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Frank","family":"Usarski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism in Latin America"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:40:28Z","timestamp":1632426028000},"score":16.795694,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0267.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0267","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,24]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:50:22Z","timestamp":1714729822890},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195393521","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Historically significant civilizations dotted the heart of Eurasia already by the first centuries of the Common Era. Then, Indic Buddhist traditions began to arrive along merchant routes and find local patronage. Central Asia, like Buddhism, is hardly a fixed or consensual category: it takes quite different shape depending on the subfield and the historical period. Scholars of Buddhism (as opposed to scholars of Islam, for example) generally use \u201cCentral Asia\u201d in reference to networks of oasis towns, such as Khotan and Turfan, that made up the ancient Silk Road between eastern Iran and Dunhuang during the first millennia\u00a0ce. Transported by merchants and monks, and according to the ebb and flow of conquest and regional political fragmentation, Buddhism flowed from the Indian subcontinent into and through these city-states. Out of complex multilingual and multicultural encounters leading to Islamic hegemony in the 7th century\u00a0ce, Indian, Greek, Persian, Turkic, and Chinese civilizations were twined here in new and significant ways. The Buddhisms that formed in the contact zones of Central Asia found material expression in diverse artistic and architectural styles, and they were intoned and expounded upon in some twenty-four languages and written on page and stele in at least seventeen scripts. The Central Asian melting pot provided the foundations for later, more enduring Buddhist traditions in China and Tibet, and proceeding from there to Korea, Japan, Mongolia, and Siberia. Recent scholarship is charting the extent to which Buddhist traditions in Central Asia developed in transformative dialogue with Islam and gave shape to medieval European scholasticism. Despite its formative place in Eurasian history, however, scholarship on Central Asian Buddhism remains remote for nonspecialist Buddhologists and general readers. Much of this scarcity is due to the paucity of primary sources: the archaeological and material record remains fragmentary; the agents of transmission, translation, and innovation are too often nameless or otherwise untraceable; and primary languages have been long dead. Few general overviews are available of the rich scholarship on Central Asian Buddhism to help fill this gap. To compound matters, vast bodies of contemporary secondary scholarship in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Russian, Tibetan, and Mongolian remain inaccessible to nonspecialists in Europe and North America. While a comprehensive guide to that enormous, global scholarly literature would be a worthwhile contribution, it is well beyond the purview of this article (and of the Oxford Bibliographies in Buddhism series more generally). What follows is a necessarily partial bibliography aimed at providing accessible scholarship for nonspecialists, undergraduate educators, and general readers. As such, its linguistic bias is with European-language scholarship. Even so, the sources described below will quickly lead interested readers to key, non-European-language specialist studies, relevant scholarly journals, and databases of primary sources according to interest and linguistic ability.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0211","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,8,4]],"date-time":"2015-08-04T12:51:32Z","timestamp":1438692692000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Buddhism in Central Asia"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Matthew","family":"King","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,28]]},"container-title":["Buddhism"],"original-title":["Buddhism in Central Asia"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:22:52Z","timestamp":1632424972000},"score":16.794447,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195393521\/obo-9780195393521-0211.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,28]]},"ISBN":["9780195393521"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195393521-0211","published":{"date-parts":[[2015,7,28]]}}],"items-per-page":20,"query":{"start-index":0,"search-terms":"Buddhism"}}}