Environmental law is the law of environmental problems. It is a subject that can be traced back to ancient civilizations but has primarily developed since the 1960s as a response to democratic demands to deal with environmental degradation. It is a vast subject covering a range of topics, and what the boundaries of the subject are is often open to debate. For non-lawyers reading environmental-law scholarship and material, there are six important points to keep in mind. First, the subject is jurisdiction based. Any inquiry into environmental law needs to be accompanied with an understanding of the legal system that the inquiry relates to. The environmental law of the United States is distinct from the environmental law of Thailand and even from the environmental law of Canada. There is a large body of international environmental law, but given the nature of international law, it does not legally bind in the way national law does, and it does not exist in an automatic hierarchy with national law. Second, environmental law is \u201capplied law\u201d and thus often involves the application of basic legal concepts to environmental problems. Environmental law in most jurisdictions is primarily made up of legislation, and thus knowing about the legal principles of legislation is important. The role of the courts will also be important in adjudicating on legal disputes. Third, there are common themes across all jurisdictions (e.g., Environmental Law and Tragedies of the Commons and the respective roles of Science and Environmental Law and Public Participation and Access to Justice) and common legal techniques (e.g., Environmental Principles and Regulatory Strategies and Environmental Governance) and legal processes (e.g., the Role of Courts and regulatory Enforcement). It is these common themes that are often the focus of scholarly attention and debate. This article has been structured with this in mind. Research within the field will be more successful if questions are as focused as they can be in relation to themes and jurisdictions. Fourth, this is a fast-moving area of law, and the environmental-law regime of a jurisdiction can change quickly. The law of a decade ago may not be the law now. Fifth, given the social and environmental complexity of environmental problems, the subject is heavily influenced by writings from other disciplines, particularly writings that relate to environmental problems and how a state should respond to them. Sixth, there is no obvious \u201ccanon\u201d of environmental-law scholarship due to the jurisdiction-based, fast-paced, and diverse nature of the subject.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0089","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,11]],"date-time":"2018-01-11T08:57:22Z","timestamp":1515661042000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Environmental Law"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Liz","family":"Fisher","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,11]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Environmental Law"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:24:42Z","timestamp":1632425082000},"score":12.405661,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0089.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,11]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0089","published":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,11]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:28:14Z","timestamp":1715293694720},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Environmental economics uses the tools of economic analysis to address issues relating to the impacts of human activity on the natural environment, the ways in which those impacts affect human well-being, and the appropriate policy and regulatory responses to environmental problems. Such policy responses include targets (how much pollution is acceptable) and instruments (what means are available to achieve particular targets and their relative merits). Environmental economics emerged as a well-defined subdiscipline in the 1960s; in the 1970s and 1980s, most research considered local air and water pollution problems, with a key theme emerging that the use of economic incentive-based policy instruments had large potential efficiency gains compared with traditional (command-and-control) regulatory instruments. As the subject became more actively researched, other strands have become interwoven into environmental economics. First, recognition that sustainability of activity is as important as economic efficiency and that these two objectives may not always be mutually consistent. Second, system-level thinking showed that researchers cannot properly address environmental concerns without being aware of the material basis of economic activity and without considering the ecosystems within which particular configurations of resources are found\u2014hence, the emergence of ecological economics and the linkage of natural resource economics with mainstream environmental economics. Early work in environmental economics was national or subnational in focus and heavily dominated by papers that addressed issues of particular concern to the more affluent Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries. This emphasis changed for several reasons. Global poverty reduction became more central to the international agenda, and governments became aware that dealing with poverty was a necessary condition for achieving sustainability goals. Globalization and greater economic interdependence of nations pointed to the need to bring international trade into the analysis of environmental problems. In addition, perhaps of most importance in terms of its effect on studies by environmental economists, it became evident that many of the most serious and least tractable environmental problems were international, with impacts spilling over national boundaries and thus requiring international policy coordination. In this vein, research has begun on solving acid rain pollution, ozone layer\u2013depleting substances (both of which have been dealt with relative success), and global environmental problems such as biodiversity loss and climate change (the track record for both is far less impressive). One unifying feature throughout the whole discipline of environmental economics is the issue of valuation of non-marketed goods and services, including environmental amenities. A central precept within the discipline is that environmental problems arise because of the presence of externalities, particularly \u201cpublic good\u201d externalities. By definition, externalities are not priced. However, designing appropriate policy responses requires that shadow prices be imputed, and the huge literature on non-market valuation considers how these shadow prices can be estimated.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0033","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,30]],"date-time":"2015-09-30T15:27:18Z","timestamp":1443626838000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Environmental Economics"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Roger","family":"Perman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,29]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Environmental Economics"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:22:01Z","timestamp":1632424921000},"score":12.214201,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0033.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,29]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0033","published":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,29]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:28:35Z","timestamp":1715293715350},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
In this article, environmental physics is defined as the branch of physics concerned with the measurement and analysis of interactions between organisms and their environment. Most commonly, the organisms are plants and animals, and the environment is the atmospheric or soil environment in which they are surrounded. The term physics is derived from the Greek word meaning \u201cknowledge of nature.\u201d Its precursor, natural philosophy, dating back to the ancient Greeks, involved quantitative reasoning and explanations of natural processes. University departments of natural philosophy existed until well into the 20th century (e.g., at the University of Edinburgh, this author\u2019s alma mater), so environmental physics has a well-established ancient heritage. Physics uses observations, experiments, and mathematical analyses to find quantitative physical laws that apply at all scales. The study of environmental physics requires an understanding of (mostly) classical physics but frequently also draws on knowledge of environmental physiology, that is, how living organisms function and respond to the environment. Environmental physics is often concerned with analyzing interactions in which the environment modifies an organism\u2019s responses, and those responses modify the surrounding environment through feedback processes. Consequently, progress in environmental physics is often made through collaboration between physicists, biologists, atmospheric scientists, and soil scientists.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0075","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,27]],"date-time":"2017-06-27T10:13:35Z","timestamp":1498558415000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Environmental Physics"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Michael H.","family":"Unsworth","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,27]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Environmental Physics"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:39:52Z","timestamp":1632425992000},"score":12.203747,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0075.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,27]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0075","published":{"date-parts":[[2017,6,27]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:29:09Z","timestamp":1715293749877},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Having emerged in the 1970s as public awareness of and concern for environmental problems increased, environmental sociology\u2019s main goal is to understand the interconnections between human societies and the natural (or biophysical) environment. Environmental sociology has been described as comprising four major areas of research. First, environmental sociologists study the social causes of environmental problems. Along these lines, scholars have developed an array of theoretical frameworks to explain how various social factors, including demographic, social, cultural, political, economic, and technological dynamics, generate environmental impacts and problems, and they have conducted many empirical studies on a wide range of environmental indicators to assess hypotheses derived from these theories. Second, environmental sociology is concerned with how the natural environment influences and impacts society. Early environmental sociologists strongly emphasized the dependence of human societies on the natural environment and stressed that the field should consider how the environment shapes society in addition to how society impacts the environment. Research in this area tackles issues such as the social consequences of natural disasters and the inequitable distribution of environmental hazards along racial and socioeconomic lines. Third, environmental sociology examines social reactions and responses to environmental threats and problems. Research in this area focuses on understanding patterns and trends in environmental attitudes and behaviors (e.g., recycling) as well as various aspects of the environmental movement. Fourth, environmental sociologists are concerned with understanding social processes and dynamics that could advance environmental reform and sustainability. In general, environmental sociology has tended to focus more on explaining how society causes environmental problems while paying less attention to potential solutions, but a shift has taken place in recent decades. The development, discussion, and empirical assessment of theories of environmental reform, analyses of potential solutions to environmental crises, and drafting of conceptual frameworks for sustainability have become important foci of scholarly activity in environmental sociology. Another major area of research, one that cuts across the preceding four, is the human dimensions of global climate change, which has become one of the main substantive issues studied by environmental sociologists. In this article, important scholarly works in each of these five areas are highlighted and briefly discussed, along with a selection of the most relevant textbooks, handbooks and collections, encyclopedia and review articles that provide general overviews of the field, and academic journals that publish environmental sociology research.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0100","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,24]],"date-time":"2018-07-24T08:13:57Z","timestamp":1532420037000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Environmental Sociology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Kyle W.","family":"Knight","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,24]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Environmental Sociology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:37:47Z","timestamp":1632425867000},"score":12.191629,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0100.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,24]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0100","published":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,24]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:28:14Z","timestamp":1715293694610},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Environmental issues inherently transcend geopolitical boundaries, and the need for international mechanisms to address planetary problems has become increasingly salient. International environmental agreements have grown exponentially since the 1970s. According to a recent estimate from the United Nations Environment Programme, world leaders have signed up to over 500 internationally recognized agreements, including 61 atmosphere related; 155 biodiversity related; 179 related to chemicals, hazardous substances, and waste; 46 land conventions; and 196 conventions that are broadly related to issues dealing with water. Following trade, environment is now the most common area of global rule making. Global environmental agreements are formulated, ratified, and implemented through a highly complex set of circumstances that often defy systematic inquiry. The key protagonists in the environmental treaty-making system include governmental leaders and special-interest groups (such as environmental organizations, industry associations, and scientific organizations). Our aim in this article is to provide sources that cover this full panorama of stakeholders rather than particular legalistic treatises (which are better covered within the International Law category of Oxford Bibliographies in an entry by Ole Kristian Fauchald on Multilateral Environmental Agreements). The coverage provided here focuses on the process by which environmental science has been operationalized in the treaty-making process.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0030","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,24]],"date-time":"2015-09-24T09:23:14Z","timestamp":1443086594000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Environmental Treaties"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Saleem","family":"Ali","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Rebecca","family":"Pincus","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,8,31]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Environmental Treaties"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:32:28Z","timestamp":1632425548000},"score":12.19021,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0030.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,8,31]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0030","published":{"date-parts":[[2015,8,31]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,2]],"date-time":"2025-11-02T16:48:17Z","timestamp":1762102097690},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The use of geographic information systems (GIS) in environmental science is a complex, multifaceted, and amorphous topic. Environmental science is a multidisciplinary field that integrates the biological, social, and physical sciences to address the seemingly intractable environmental problems humans face. Increasingly, GIS is the tool used to organize, analyze, manage, and visualize geospatial data that links models to derive outputs from environmental analysis and modeling. Coupled, the fields of GIS and environmental science cover a multitude of topics and approaches scattered across a broad bibliographic landscape. The environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s fueled the development of environmental science as a disciplinary field closely related to ecology, geography, and hydrology. In the 1980s, GIS became a more accessible tool for researchers through such programs as GRASS, Intergraph, and ESRI\u2019s ArcInfo to characterize and analyze complex environmental problems. During the 1990s, approaches to environmental science focused on risk management, pollution, and monitoring. The coincidence of Internet development, data accessibility, visualization, and software modeling tools have created a perfect storm for the adoption of an integrated approach\u2014environmental science with an integrated technology (GIS)\u2014to address environmental issues. There has been a virtual explosion of applications and research utilizing GIS that cover a broad range of issues: water resources, climate change, urban planning, environmental justice, vulnerability studies, etc. This bibliography provides an entr\u00e9e to the complex landscape of GIS applications for environmental science. It is not an exhaustive bibliography, but one that highlights some of the main avenues of GIS applications. Utilizing the Web of Science, Academic Search Premier, and Google Scholar, key articles on GIS and environmental science were accessed and organized around various thematic areas, including Disasters, Ecology, Pollution, Public Health and Epidemiology, and Water Resources Analysis. There are numerous other areas of this topic, but selecting these areas presents the reader with an overview of the field. Many of the articles in this bibliography provide a jumping off point to explore other topic areas that are not included in this bibliography.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0081","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,27]],"date-time":"2017-09-27T09:04:18Z","timestamp":1506503058000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Use of GIS in Environmental Science"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Karam","family":"Ahmad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Melinda","family":"Laituri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,27]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Use of GIS in Environmental Science"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:39:11Z","timestamp":1632425951000},"score":12.158095,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0081.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,27]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0081","published":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,27]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:28:11Z","timestamp":1715293691873},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to the design of environmental protection and remediation strategies using physical, chemical, and biological treatment methods, all within a regulatory framework. Environmental engineers aim to minimize the adverse effects of human activities on the natural environment. While environmental engineering is often defined by Core Disciplines, it can better be described as a field of study dedicated to three primary objectives. The first is to clean and protect the environment from pollution: think of this as \u201cfixing the past.\u201d Before environmental regulations were introduced, chemicals were released directly into the environment, and there remain tens of thousands of contaminated sites throughout the world. In order to protect human health and the integrity of the environment, engineers study the transport and fate of pollutants through natural systems (see Environmental Transport Modeling) and design treatment systems to restore contaminated sites (see Remediation of Contaminated Sites). The second goal is to control waste streams generated as a result of human activities. The treatment of dirty effluents represents environmental engineers \u201cdealing with the present,\u201d or managing human-generated wastes and byproducts so that they are not released in a way that threatens the integrity of the environment; relevant core disciplines include Wastewater Treatment, Air Pollution Control, and Solid and Hazardous Waste Treatment. Recent advances focus on minimizing waste generation by reusing, recycling, and recovering resources. The third goal is to provide and ensure safe water, air, and land for future generations of humans and organisms. Pollution avoidance and future resource protection can be viewed as \u201cplanning for the future.\u201d In addition to ensuring clean ambient air, water, and soil, and providing safe drinking water (see Water Supply and Treatment) for all people, this ambitious goal is encouraging groundbreaking work in sustainable development and green engineering. While there is a significant degree of overlap between environmental science and environmental engineering, one of the primary distinctions is that environmental engineers bridge natural systems with engineered systems and the built environment. Environmental scientists aim to understand natural systems and cycles in the environment. Both scientists and engineers work to understand the influence of human activities on these systems and cycles. Environmental engineers utilize this knowledge to design and implement strategies for minimizing the adverse effects of human activities on the integrity of water, air, and land resources. Addressing these objectives requires fundamental knowledge in a diverse set of disciplines\u2014including, for example, chemistry, biology, physics, hydrology, geology, ecology, atmospheric science, risk assessment, life cycle assessment, toxicology, epidemiology, economics, social science, civil engineering, chemical engineering, and industrial ecology\u2014as well as a broad understanding of governing regulations, economic drivers, and social influences. In this way, environmental engineering overlaps with many other fields of study, including environmental science.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0029","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,15]],"date-time":"2015-04-15T08:53:40Z","timestamp":1429088020000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Environmental Engineering"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Mira S.","family":"Olson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,30]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Environmental Engineering"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:22:20Z","timestamp":1632424940000},"score":12.152882,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0029.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,30]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0029","published":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,30]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:28:04Z","timestamp":1715293684706},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Environmental security, as a subset of broader concerns over human security, is addressed from the disciplinary perspectives of international relations, political science, geography, development studies, and environmental studies. The concept of environmental security views ecological processes and natural resources as sources or catalysts of conflict, barriers or limits to human well-being, or conversely, as the means to mitigate or resolve insecurity. Security over natural resources\u2014particularly energy and increasingly water\u2014seen in terms of territorial control, treaty arrangements, and trade agreements (including the application of economic instruments) over production and conveyance of resources to demand locations, has tended to frame the analysis in international relations and political science. While spatial and transboundary concerns over resources continue to occupy geographers, attention in the field of geography is drawn increasingly to social equity and environmental justice dimensions of resource use and outcomes. Development studies focused on emerging economies and societies in rapid transition addresses environmental security in terms of differential national or regional access to resources and impacts, e.g., associated with pollution, deprivation, etc. And among other points of concern, environmental studies addresses environmental security in terms of local, intra-household, and gender-differentiated access to water, energy, and food as well as outcomes such as public health, nutrition, and quality of life. While the term environmental security has existed since at least the 1980s, its prominence in academic and political circles rose significantly after the 1994 Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Programme, which formulated the broadly accepted concept of human security. This report identified environmental security together with economic, food, health, personal, community, and political security as core components of human security. Since the 1990s, the definition and scope of environmental security have broadened to include multiple subsets, including food security, energy security, and water security, as well as emerging notions of adaptation and resilience to hazards, e.g., climate security, and all of these are referred to in this article. No attempt is made to treat the broad and ever-widening field of environmental security exhaustively. The principal aims are to trace the evolution of security discourses, consider securitization of the environment and natural resources, and assess new conceptions of environmental security in the context of global change. This work is funded by the Lloyd\u2019s Register Foundation, a charitable foundation helping to protect life and property by supporting engineering-related education, public engagement, and the application of research.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0012","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,3]],"date-time":"2015-02-03T11:49:59Z","timestamp":1422964199000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Environmental Security"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Christopher A.","family":"Scott","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Bhuwan","family":"Thapa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,15]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Environmental Security"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:22:07Z","timestamp":1632424927000},"score":12.106054,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0012.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,15]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0012","published":{"date-parts":[[2015,1,15]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:29:31Z","timestamp":1715293771459},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Environmental flows are commonly defined as the river-flow characteristics necessary to maintain the integrity of riverine ecosystems. The concept of environmental flows has evolved over the past half-century, beginning with the development of minimum instream flows necessary to protect a single fish species to current frameworks for holistically including all aspects of river health that depend on natural flow regimes. This also includes the interaction of terrestrial environments with riverine ecosystems during large flooding events. The challenges associated with defining and implementing environmental flows are numerous, and they sometimes lack data necessary to define flow-ecology relationships, appropriate temporal and spatial scales for environmental flow applications, and incorporate environmental flows into water management policy. Given these challenges, researchers and practitioners have made incredible advances in better understanding the relationships between river health and flow dynamics, including the links among flow, sediment, temperature, and human activities. In addition, computational advances have allowed researchers to more accurately model flow-habitat relationships at fine scales, providing a more complete understanding of the connection between flow and habitat needs for riverine species. All these advances benefit from holistic frameworks that guide environmental flow development and applications while considering the needs of other water uses in a river system. This article presents relevant studies regarding approaches for developing environmental flows, relationships between riverine ecology and flow dynamics, and policy frameworks and tools useful for implementing environmental flows in practice.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0116","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,31]],"date-time":"2019-07-31T07:28:33Z","timestamp":1564558113000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Environmental Flows"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Ryan","family":"Morrison","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Erin","family":"Bray","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,31]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Environmental Flows"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:26:17Z","timestamp":1632425177000},"score":12.104632,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0116.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,31]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0116","published":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,31]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,21]],"date-time":"2026-02-21T13:52:35Z","timestamp":1771681955369,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Payments for environmental services (PES), also sometimes called payments for ecosystem services, emerged from the perceived need of conservation practitioners around the world for more cost-effective and equitable ways of using scarce funds. Also sometimes referred to as ecocompensation, rewards, or cash transfers, PES consist of direct conditional payments from the users of environmental services (or their collective representatives) to landowners or stewards who provide them by adopting environmentally friendlier practices of protection or restoration. Environmental service (ES) users effectively rent out certain partial land rights from landholders (e.g., limiting their rights to deforest). This only works when ES provision can be well-monitored and enforced and when landholders can flexibly and legitimately change their preferred modes of production. Otherwise, ES users might prefer to buy out environmentally sensitive lands entirely (e.g., creating municipal reserves for spring protection in a watershed), although becoming responsible for land stewardship may over time be costly. While some PES started as long-term public environmental subsidy programs (e.g., the US Conservation Reserve Program), the big push for PES in this millennium came from economists arguing for more direct, performance-based incentives. The PES approach has become more popular among both scholars and conservation practitioners over the last few decades, with the majority of PES programs focused on forest conservation. Geographically, PES have been most popular in the Americas (North, South, Central) and in China. PES can predominantly be seen as a private lands counterpart to public protected areas, although in most countries PES are far less extensive. Increasingly, PES are applied alongside a mix of policy approaches, as a tool in a toolbox of conservation mechanisms, with the aim of incentivizing landholders to engage in sustainable practices, and promising potential long-term provenance of ES while also supporting livelihoods. PES contracts can range from short term to the indefinite duration of perpetual conservation easements. With more application of PES globally, and a font of new experiences to study, a growing body of research has emerged, seeking to evaluate the environmental and poverty reduction impacts of PES. These studies assess the successes and limitations of PES schemes, and promote best practices in preconditions, design, and implementation, as well as contextual backdrops that can affect the effectiveness and efficiency of PES schemes. Some obstacles and conditions may not be designed away, such as land-tenure insecurity and organizational capacity to pay for ES: these jeopardize the emergence and expansion of PES schemes, especially in tropical forest frontiers. However, despite the worrying record of government-led PES schemes in terms of design and implementation errors, their ability to organize collective payments at scale and to intelligently bundle them into complex policy mixes may be important future arguments in their favor.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0140","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,23]],"date-time":"2023-06-23T04:24:28Z","timestamp":1687494268000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Payments for Environmental Services"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Sven","family":"Wunder","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,23]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Payments for Environmental Services"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,23]],"date-time":"2023-06-23T04:24:29Z","timestamp":1687494269000},"score":12.026446,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0140.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,23]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0140","published":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,23]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:28:12Z","timestamp":1715293692313},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
International Environmental Agreements (IEAs) respond to transnational environmental problems associated with the use of environmental resources such as, for example, water resources in international river basins, transboundary oil and gas fields, fisheries in international waters or harvesting of migratory fish, and also transboundary pollution of water and air. An important strand of the literature deals with international climate agreements focusing on reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases. In general, IEAs address transboundary externalities and international public goods. Economic analyses of IEAs have employed game theory to explore the scope for international cooperation to resolve transboundary problems. Game theory considers the strategic situation that decision makerss face. A game specifies players, their strategies, and their payoffs under any possible course of action. It is generally assumed that players will act rationally, seeking to maximize their payoff. Although it is obvious that international cooperation can bring about huge gains through coordinated management of resources and efficient pollution control, individual free-riding behavior of countries or regions may block effective cooperation. Hence, game theory is employed in many studies to analyze strategic incentives for participation in IEAs. Empirical work deals with case studies to explain or analyze particular agreements or employs behavioral experiments to explore how institutional designs impact cooperation.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0027","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,4,15]],"date-time":"2015-04-15T08:53:40Z","timestamp":1429088020000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Economics of International Environmental Agreements"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,30]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Economics of International Environmental Agreements"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,30]],"date-time":"2021-09-30T11:14:09Z","timestamp":1633000449000},"score":11.997103,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0027.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,30]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0027","published":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,30]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]],"date-time":"2025-06-20T04:06:03Z","timestamp":1750392363516,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
What follows is a partial list of major works in the field of environmental history that identify key figures and detail their impacts on US history. The bulk of these entries are relatively recent, given the newness of the field, and they benefit from borrowing elements of social, political, economic, and cultural history to better explain these individuals and their contexts. These studies also profit from the turn in historical writing generally away from traditional, linear biographies to a more narrative style that focuses on contextualizing individuals and explaining their impact with more sensitivity to why and how they carried such influence during their lives and as part of their legacies. This bibliography is separated into public and private figures, with the former emphasizing studies that investigate the role of American politicians, particularly executives, and employees of the federal government and the latter instead focused on private figures and non-governmental actors, including several activists and organizations devoted to environmental justice. This shift in attention toward individual and non-state actors reflects trends in the discipline more broadly. It especially demonstrates the impact that social history has had on how environmental historians investigate the past. For example, recent studies of prominent figures casts a much wider net in emphasizing the role of women and people of color, and their influence on issues like conservation and the establishment of national parks. Historiography has also tended to move away from government-led conservation and preservation policies and reforms to address the growth of environmentalism in the postwar period. This shift is also reflected in the growing body of work detailing issues related to climate change and environmental justice. Much of that recent work investigates movements rather than individuals, as the tendency is to look broadly at the community or organization or agency before then conducting studies of prominent figures. This does provide some benefit, though, because one consistent theme for most of the works on this list is an attempt by the author to contextualize individuals and connect them to broader communities and conversations. The ability to then draw those connections provides opportunities to better understand the periods and eras during which these figures had an impact. As a result, most of these works excel at finding balance between emphasis on the individual and attention to his or her impact on US history more broadly.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0145","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T04:07:59Z","timestamp":1750306079000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Key Figures in Environmental History"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Douglas","family":"Sheflin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Key Figures in Environmental History"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T04:07:59Z","timestamp":1750306079000},"score":11.981095,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0145.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0145","published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,22]],"date-time":"2024-05-22T14:29:07Z","timestamp":1716388147062},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Environmental ethics focuses on questions concerning how we ought to inhabit the world; what constitutes a good life or a good society; and who, where, or what merits moral standing. The field emerged most significantly in the 1960s from an increasing awareness of the global environmental condition, although its multiple roots stretch back through the conservation legacy of Roosevelt and Leopold, the transcendentalism of Thoreau and Muir, a growing wilderness movement, insights from the ecological sciences and their precursors, and 19th-century Arcadian sentiments. The field of environmental ethics emerged as a reaction to the perception of growing environmental crises, such as the transformation of Australian forests into pine plantations, rivers afire in the industrialized regions of the United States, the pressure of population growth on natural resources, and the preservation of wild lands. In the United States these concerns led to legislative action such as the Wilderness Act (1964) and the formulation of several key pieces of legislation reflecting concern for environmental health and well-being, such as the Clean Water Act (1972) the Endangered Species Act (1973), and the establishment of both Earth Day and the Environmental Protection Agency in 1970. These events and others have most frequently been read through the lens of Western philosophy, with Aristotle, Hume, Spinoza, and others serving as theoretical guides, and Western science functioning as both source of and solution to environmental problems. Contributions from non-Western cultures illuminate other forms of relating to the land, based on very different metaphysical understandings. There is often a fine line, for example, between the animate and inanimate, or communal and individual\u2014a line of moral considerability found in other cultures that some Western philosophers seek to blur. Rather than establishing separate categories for non-Western environmental ethics, or those offered by feminists, we have focused on the arguments and investigations within the field. Through creating constellations of individuals with similar concerns, we have created a taxonomy of discourse on selected topics. This article opens with general overviews of environmental ethics in single-author monographs and edited anthologies. Foundational texts from philosophy, science, and the humanities provide an interdisciplinary context for the concepts explored in sections on the human place in nature, moral consideration, putting environmental ethics into practice, and issues of and for the future.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0025","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,23]],"date-time":"2015-03-23T12:55:46Z","timestamp":1427115346000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Environmental Ethics"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Michael Paul","family":"Nelson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Leslie A.","family":"Ryan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,10]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Environmental Ethics"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:25:26Z","timestamp":1632425126000},"score":11.953234,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0025.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,10]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0025","published":{"date-parts":[[2015,3,10]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:27:54Z","timestamp":1715293674801},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Rulemaking is the process by which federal or state agencies translate vague congressional statues into rules of law. The federal process is guided by the Administrative Procedures Act (APA) of 1946, and states have enacted similar legislation to guide state agency processes. The APA requires any agency that produces a rule to notify the public, allow time for public comment, and respond to those comments. The rulemaking process can be broken down into three stages, including the pre-proposal, notice and comment, and rule finalization stages. Stage 1, the pre-proposal stage, consists of the agency activities to produce a draft rule. Stage 2, the notice and comment stage, includes the process outlined by the APA when the agency formally publishes a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (NPRM) in the Federal Register. Stage 3 of the rulemaking process begins once the comment period ends. At this juncture, agency personnel review the comments to determine the language and substance of the final rule and publish it in the Federal Register. Once a rule is finalized, it carries the same weight as a congressional law. Since the early 1990s, scholars have become more interested in analyzing the rulemaking process. First, some scholars have focused on describing how the rulemaking process unfolds across the bureaucracy, and they provide a roadmap toward implementing 21st-Century Rulemaking strategies to make the process more efficient. In this regard, scholars have illustrated the need for more collaborative rulemaking processes; which methods work best continues to be a debate in the field. The second area of research focuses on Rulemaking and the Role of Institutions in influencing outcomes. These scholars are interested in explaining the role of the president, Congress, and the courts in the rulemaking process with the goal of determining which institution(s) is most influential in shaping regulatory outcomes. The third track of research addresses Stakeholders and Rulemaking and attempts to determine which groups are more influential and at which stage. Finally, a small, but growing, scholarship addresses the above questions within the context of State Rulemaking. This article provides an overview of prevalent research in each of these areas.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0009","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,31]],"date-time":"2014-10-31T15:39:03Z","timestamp":1414769943000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Rulemaking"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,28]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Rulemaking"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:41:48Z","timestamp":1632426108000},"score":11.931627,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0009.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,28]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0009","published":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,28]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,10]],"date-time":"2024-09-10T21:52:02Z","timestamp":1726005122060},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"9780199389414"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Fisheries science emerged in the mid-19th century, when scientists volunteered to conduct conservation-related investigations of commercially important aquatic species for the governments of North Atlantic nations. Scientists also promoted oyster culture and fish hatcheries to sustain the aquatic harvests. Fisheries science fully professionalized with specialized graduate training in the 1920s.<\/p>\n
The earliest stage, involving inventory science, trawling surveys, and natural history studies continued to dominate into the 1930s within the European colonial diaspora. Meanwhile, scientists in Scandinavian countries, Britain, Germany, the United States, and Japan began developing quantitative fisheries science after 1900, incorporating hydrography, age-determination studies, and population dynamics. Norwegian biologist Johan Hjort\u2019s 1914 finding, that the size of a large \u201cyear class\u201d of juvenile fish is unrelated to the size of the spawning population, created the central foundation and conundrum of later fisheries science. By the 1920s, fisheries scientists in Europe and America were striving to develop a theory of fishing. They attempted to develop predictive models that incorporated statistical and quantitative analysis of past fishing success, as well as quantitative values reflecting a species\u2019 population demographics, as a basis for predicting future catches and managing fisheries for sustainability. This research was supported by international scientific organizations such as the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), the International Pacific Halibut Commission (IPHC), and the United Nations\u2019 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).<\/p>\n
Both nationally and internationally, political entanglement was an inevitable feature of fisheries science. Beyond substituting their science for fishers\u2019 traditional and practical knowledge, many postwar fisheries scientists also brought progressive ideals into fisheries management, advocating fishing for a maximum sustainable yield. This in turn made it possible for governments, economists, and even scientists, to use this nebulous target to project preferred social, political, and economic outcomes, while altogether discarding any practical conservation measures to rein in globalized postwar industrialized fishing. These ideals were also exported to nascent postwar fisheries science programs in developing Pacific and Indian Ocean nations and in Eastern Europe and Turkey.<\/p>\n
The vision of mid-century triumphalist science, that industrial fisheries could be scientifically managed like any other industrial enterprise, was thwarted by commercial fish stock collapses, beginning slowly in the 1950s and accelerating after 1970, including the massive northern cod crisis of the early 1990s. In the 1980s scientists, aided by more powerful computers, attempted multi-species models to understand the different impacts of a fishery on various species. Daniel Pauly led the way with multi-species models for tropical fisheries, where the need for such was most urgent, and pioneered the global database FishBase, using fishing data collected by the FAO and national bodies. In Canada the cod crisis inspired Ransom Myers to use large databases for fisheries analysis to show the role of overfishing in causing that crisis. After 1980 population ecologists also demonstrated the importance of life history data for understanding fish species\u2019 responses to fishery-induced population and environmental change.<\/p>\n
With fishing continuing to shrink many global commercial stocks, scientists have demonstrated how different measures can manage fisheries for species with different life-history profiles. Aside from the need for effective scientific monitoring, the biggest ongoing challenges remain having politicians, governments, fisheries industry members, and other stakeholders commit to scientifically recommended long-term conservation measures.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/acrefore\/9780199389414.013.370","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,25]],"date-time":"2017-09-25T22:44:45Z","timestamp":1506379485000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Fisheries Science and Its Environmental Consequences"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Jennifer","family":"Hubbard","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,24]]},"container-title":["Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Fisheries Science and Its Environmental Consequences"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,31]],"date-time":"2022-08-31T18:36:55Z","timestamp":1661971015000},"score":11.924825,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/environmentalscience.oxfordre.com\/view\/10.1093\/acrefore\/9780199389414.001.0001\/acrefore-9780199389414-e-370"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,24]]},"ISBN":["9780199389414"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/acrefore\/9780199389414.013.370","published":{"date-parts":[[2017,5,24]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:30:25Z","timestamp":1715293825388},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
During the past decade the number of citizen science projects around the world has surged. Today there are thousands of initiatives catalogued in databases such as SciStarter.org and EU-Citizen.science, enterprises of which the majority are directly or indirectly linked to scientific research projects. However, citizen science is not a completely novel way of conducting collaborative research; it has been around since the beginning of the scientific revolution and historical data collected by volunteers from the 19th century is used in contemporary research. While citizen science has been most widely used in biodiversity research, conservation, and environmental sciences in need of large-scale observations and monitoring, the approach has today entered a very diverse set of disciplines ranging from the humanities and the social sciences to geography, astronomy, epidemiology, and do-it-yourself technology research. This is largely a consequence of the recent rise and diffusion of digital technologies and communities, notably the Zooniverse.org platform, which makes online classificatory citizen science projects possible at a feasible cost and with a low barrier for mass participation. Consequently, citizen science as a method for collecting and classifying data is in its current state a research design applicable to more or less any empirical line of inquiry. However, volunteer participation in science requires additional considerations to be made that address issues such as the quality of data collected or classified by nonscientists, research ethics concerning attribution and participation in the research design, and ownership of data and results. Furthermore, the expectations of impact may differ between the scientific goals and the participating public\u2019s desire for changes in, for example, environmental policy or species conservation. In 2016 the journal Citizen Science Theory and Practice was launched by the Citizen Science Association, in which current research on the phenomenon is published.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0133","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,30]],"date-time":"2021-09-30T12:39:19Z","timestamp":1633005559000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Citizen Science"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,22]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Citizen Science"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,30]],"date-time":"2021-09-30T12:39:19Z","timestamp":1633005559000},"score":11.910499,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0133.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,22]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0133","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,22]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:29:51Z","timestamp":1715293791901},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Each day people are exposed to a wide variety of agents and stressors that have the potential to impact human health and well-being. Environmental health is the study of those environmental factors and how they may contribute to human health and disease. An individual\u2019s environment is one of the most important contributors to one\u2019s overall wellness and quality of life. Environmental factors play a role in at least 85 percent of all human diseases. More importantly, an individual\u2019s environment is the most easily modified aspect of one\u2019s overall health. Understanding the impact of the external environment, how it interacts with biological processes, and what can be done to eliminate or mitigate negative effects provides better protection for human populations from deleterious health outcomes. Traditionally, science has looked at environmental factors by using a risk-based approach. In this model, information on an agent\u2019s potential to cause harm, as depicted by a dose-response relationship for a given adverse effect, is integrated with an individual\u2019s potential to be exposed to that hazard in order to characterize the likelihood and severity of health risk. As we move into a new era of environmental-health research, scientists are thinking about environmental impacts on human health in new ways. It\u2019s no longer as simple as \u201cthe dose makes the poison,\u201d where high doses of a chemical are bad and lower doses are not as bad. While there are still many instances of high-concentration exposures to toxic heavy metals, pesticides, or other substances, a new understanding of how low-level exposures contribute to the development of common disorders such as diabetes, developmental delays, and other modern epidemics is changing the traditional paradigm of toxicology. Timing of exposure during fetal and early-childhood development, mixture effects from combined exposures, impacts on genetic and epigenetic gene regulation, and individual human susceptibilities can result in increased disease incidence or severity. Further, these effects are seen not only in exposed individuals, but also in their direct offspring and potentially subsequent generations. The study of environmental health provides opportunities to mitigate or prevent a wide range of human disease and disability from an individual, community, and policy perspective. We can\u2019t change our genes, but we can change our environment, behaviors, and exposures. This article describes the ways we are exposed to stressors in our environment, the primary fields that contribute to our understanding of environmental health, and some emerging issues that require 21st-century approaches to promoting healthy environments and preventing human disease.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0127","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]],"date-time":"2020-02-26T11:58:19Z","timestamp":1582718299000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Environmental Health"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Mark F.","family":"Miller","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Kelly J.","family":"Chandler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Linda S.","family":"Birnbaum","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Environmental Health"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:34:02Z","timestamp":1632425642000},"score":11.780991,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0127.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0127","published":{"date-parts":[[2020,2,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:30:15Z","timestamp":1715293815487},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Permafrost is permanently frozen ground that remains continuously below 0 \u00b0C for two or more years. The upper level of permafrost, the permafrost table, can occur within a centimeter of the ground surface or at a depth of several meters. The active layer, which thaws each summer, overlies permafrost. Permafrost underlies about a quarter of the northern hemisphere and can form in sediment or bedrock and on land or under the ocean. Permafrost forms incrementally and, in the regions where it is up to 1 km thick, permafrost can represent thousands of years of formation. Permafrost is present at high latitudes and high altitudes. In these regions, permafrost can be described as continuous, discontinuous, sporadic, or isolated. Continuous permafrost forms at mean annual air temperatures below -5 \u00b0C and is laterally continuous, regardless of surface aspect or material. Discontinuous permafrost forms where the mean annual air temperature is between -2 and -4 \u00b0C, allowing permafrost to persist in 50 to 90 percent of the landscape. Permafrost is sporadic where 10 to <50 percent of the landscape is underlain by permafrost and mean annual air temperature is between 0 and -2 \u00b0C. Permafrost is considered isolated where less than 10 percent of the landscape is underlain by permafrost. When it is present, permafrost creates unique conditions. Permafrost forms an impermeable layer beneath the active layer, for example, which limits the rooting depth of plants and prevents infiltration by water during the summer. The lack of deep infiltration can facilitate formation of extensive wetlands in high-latitude areas that receive relatively little precipitation. Permafrost degradation (thaw) creates diverse environmental hazards, including instability of the ground surface that affects infrastructure and fluxes of water, sediment, and organic matter entering rivers, lakes and oceans. Permafrost degradation releases frozen microbes, some of which are pathogens, and organic carbon. Permafrost degradation also influences the geographic range of plants and animals and thus ecosystem processes and biotic communities. The greatest concern with permafrost degradation at present, however, is the potential for releasing significant carbon into the atmosphere. Globally, soils are the largest terrestrial reservoir of carbon and permafrost soils are the single largest component of the carbon reservoir. Carbon released by degrading permafrost can enter the atmosphere as the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane, or the carbon can be taken up by plants or transported by rivers to the ocean and buried in marine sediments. The balance among these different pathways is largely unknown, but carbon release to the atmosphere presents a serious threat as a mechanism to enhance global warming.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0132","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]],"date-time":"2021-07-27T12:25:21Z","timestamp":1627388721000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Permafrost"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,28]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Permafrost"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:42:12Z","timestamp":1632426132000},"score":11.745195,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0132.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,28]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0132","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,28]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:28:48Z","timestamp":1715293728537},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Work in animal ethics explores both theoretical questions about the basis of moral consideration for animals and what (if anything) we owe them, as well as practical issues relating to how we should treat them. The term \u201canimal\u201d technically refers to all members of the kingdom Animalia, which includes organisms with complex nervous systems such as mammals, birds, herpetofauna (reptiles and amphibians), and fishes but also includes many with simple nervous systems such as barnacles and nematodes. However, most of the literature in animal ethics, and the references cited in this article, focus on animals that are believed to be sentient: that is, they can have subjective experiences and lead a life that can go better or worse for them experientially. Almost everyone agrees that mammals and birds are sentient, and many argue that other vertebrates (e.g., fish and herpetofauna) are also sentient, but relatively few claim that many invertebrates (other than cephalopods) are sentient. Sentience is commonly claimed to give animals moral standing because, as subjects of conscious experiences, things matter to them. As Peter Singer put it in his landmark 1975 book Animal Liberation, if a being can experience suffering or enjoyment, then it can be harmed and benefited in morally significant ways. Since the 1970s, animal ethics has expanded in many different directions. First, it has become much more deeply informed by scientific work on animal behavior and cognition. This has helped in understanding both what matters to animals and in considering what might matter about them. Second, different theoretical positions in animal ethics have been carefully worked out, including utilitarianism and rights views, which dominated much of the early discussion, but also alternative approaches such as contract theory and ethics of care. Third, alongside general discussions of animals\u2019 moral significance, there has been much deeper ethical exploration of different contexts in which humans encounter or live with animals such as in the wild, in agriculture, in zoos, as companions, or in laboratories. These different contexts have raised more practical, applied ethical questions. This article introduces some of the most important work in terms of the science influencing animal ethics, different theoretical approaches to animal ethics, and debates about what we owe to animals in different contexts.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0083","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,27]],"date-time":"2017-09-27T09:04:18Z","timestamp":1506503058000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Animal Ethics"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,27]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Animal Ethics"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:43:48Z","timestamp":1632426228000},"score":11.735092,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0083.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,27]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0083","published":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,27]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:28:31Z","timestamp":1715293711051},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199363445","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The biogeochemical cycle of carbon (C) in the earth system controls fluxes, pools, and transformations associated with life\u2019s most fundamental element. As the most basic building block for all living organisms, organically bound C forms the basis for the overwhelming majority of food chains in ecosystems and global energy flows. The uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) by autotrophic organisms and photosynthetic transformation of light energy into chemical energy enables conversion of atmospheric CO2 into structural materials for living organisms and ultimately fossil fuels. In the earth system, C exists in different forms and reservoirs, including gaseous, dissolved, and solid forms distributed and continually exchanged among the atmosphere, terrestrial, and aquatic spheres. The most important gaseous forms of C include CO2 and methane (CH4). The liquid phase includes different species of C found in water, including (1) dissolved CO2 and carbonic acid (H2CO3) and its intermediates, (2) dissolved organic compounds (molecules <0.45 \u00b5m in size), (3) suspended organic and inorganic colloids\/particles (typically >10s nm) containing C, and (4) raw oil. The solid phase comprises C (1) in rocks of organic and inorganic origin, in sedimentary rocks and sediments including coal, (2) on and in soils in the form of carbonates, (3) in dead not dissolved or suspended organic compounds, and (4) in the living biomass of microorganisms, plants, and animals. The C in the atmosphere, terrestrial, and aquatic systems can be characterized according to the amount of C stored in a given reservoir, its mean residence time (i.e., the time needed to exchange each C atom of the considered system or subsystem at least once), and the physical or chemical state of C in a given reservoir or as it exchanges among reservoirs. Different systems can be subdivided into active and inactive drivers of C dynamics based on the C mean residence times. Under natural conditions, almost the entire C stored in sediments or sedimentary rocks, for example, is considered to be inactive with mean residence times longer than 1,000 years. Contrastingly, the C stored in the atmosphere, surface oceans, plant biomass, and soil organic material in the soil is relatively active with residence times ranging from seconds to centuries. However, anthropogenic extractions of fossil fuel C from global sedimentary deposits, for example, have demonstrated how inactive C reservoirs can be rapidly transformed into highly active drivers of global C dynamics.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0065","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,27]],"date-time":"2017-04-27T09:34:06Z","timestamp":1493285646000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Carbon Dynamics"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,27]]},"container-title":["Environmental Science"],"original-title":["Carbon Dynamics"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,23]],"date-time":"2021-11-23T06:21:33Z","timestamp":1637648493000},"score":11.674162,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199363445\/obo-9780199363445-0065.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,27]]},"ISBN":["9780199363445"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199363445-0065","published":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,27]]}}],"items-per-page":20,"query":{"start-index":0,"search-terms":"Environmental+Science"}}}