Since the early 1990s, cultural geography has become one of the most vibrant branches of human geography. Indeed, the influence of the cultural is so pronounced in human geography that it is not always clear if some of the scholarly work constitutes cultural geography or simply a \u201cculturalization\u201d of other subdisciplines. The lines between cultural and social geography are particularly unclear. For example, research on sexuality, diaspora, transnationalism, disability, and so forth clearly has social dimensions as well as cultural ones. Given the ambiguities and the enlarged sphere of cultural influence, the approach adopted here in introducing research and publications in cultural geography respects the following principles. First, it is historically sensitive; that is, the works introduced begin with traditional cultural geography and move on to new cultural geography. Similarly, numerous concepts introduced below have been central or fashionable for cultural geographers at different times in the development of the subdiscipline (for example, sense of place preceded ideology, hegemony, and resistance, which in turn preceded performance, performativity, embodiment, affect, and emotion). Second, it is philosophically situated, meaning the works introduced are organized within a framework of the larger philosophical shifts in human geography. Third, it is focused in terms of its scope, some might even say narrow, concentrating on expressions that are clearly cultural (e.g., literature, art, music, digital culture, etc.) rather than social or social-cultural (e.g., disability, gender, sexuality, diaspora), which are more often examined in the context of social geography.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0003","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]],"date-time":"2013-03-19T17:56:38Z","timestamp":1363715798000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cultural Geography"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Cultural Geography"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,9,24]],"date-time":"2022-09-24T08:26:09Z","timestamp":1664007969000},"score":13.170226,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0003.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0003","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T02:45:43Z","timestamp":1772765143342,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
On 16 May 1925, Antonio Gramsci delivered his first and only speech in the Italian Parliament. An elected deputy of the Italian Communist Party, he spoke out against Fascist efforts to \u201cliquidate\u201d his party. He denounced arrests of his fellow leaders, arguing, \u201cYou are doing what they used to do in the South, when they hired thugs to arrest anyone who voted for the opposition.\u201d The Fascists in Parliament, including his adversary Benito Mussolini, continually interrupted Gramsci, asserting that he \u201cknew nothing of the South.\u201d Gramsci responded emphatically, \u201cI am a southerner.\u201d He proceeded to offer a distinctly spatial set of insights. He noted that the state was expropriating resources from peasants in the South and using them to exploit workers in factories of the North. The defeat of Fascism, he believed, would require a class alliance between northern workers and southern peasants. \u201cUpon this terrain,\u201d he argued, workers and peasants could organize \u201cagainst their common enemy.\u201d After the speech, Mussolini approached Gramsci as he drank coffee at the bar. Mussolini reached out his hand in congratulation, but, as biographer Giuseppe Fiori recounts, Gramsci \u201ccontinued sipping his coffee indifferently.\u201d This article demonstrates Gramsci\u2019s relevance for the study of geography. It includes biographical information about Gramsci, a discussion of his main published works, and a brief summary of some important works in the field. It describes Gramsci\u2019s long history as a student of the field, having studied geography and linguistics at the University of Turin under Professor Mario Bartoli in the 1910s. It traces Gramsci\u2019s development as a spatial thinker in his speeches, political writing, and journalism as a leader of the Italian Communist Party. It describes how his attention to issues of space developed alongside Fascism\u2019s rise as a state form. It considers how his unfinished 1926 essay, \u201cSome Aspects of the Southern Question,\u201d offered a historical and geographical method for analyzing the dialectics of class, region, and political economy and culture\u2014including the articulation of race and class. Though this article includes \u201cThe Southern Question,\u201d as well as critical engagements with it, it does not limit his contributions to geography to this one piece. It specifically foregrounds Gramsci\u2019s method of conjunctural analysis articulated in the Prison Notebooks. It features an array of geographers who have engaged with his work, and also includes spatial thinkers across the disciplines who approach Gramscian concepts and categories. Amid a global resurgence of white nationalism and neofascism, and what, following Gramsci, we might call an \u201corganic crisis\u201d of US hegemony and global capitalism on a world scale, engagements with Gramsci\u2019s spatial insights are warranted.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0241","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,23]],"date-time":"2022-02-23T18:35:34Z","timestamp":1645641334000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Gramsci and Geography"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Gramsci and Geography"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,23]],"date-time":"2022-02-23T18:35:35Z","timestamp":1645641335000},"score":13.068656,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0241.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0241","published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,21]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:19:56Z","timestamp":1714731596578},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
While there is debate about terminology, \u2018refugee\u2019 broadly defined refers to people who have been forcibly displaced from their homes. In 2019, there were 26 million refugees, 45.7 million internally displaced persons, and 4.2 million asylum seekers according to the UNHCR. By legal definition, refugees are those who cross international borders and are legally processed in another country; asylum seekers are those seeking legal protections in other countries; and internally displaced persons (IDPs) are individuals who have been displaced within the boundaries of their country. There are 148 state signatories, including the United States, on either or both the 1951 Convention on Refugees, formed in the aftermath of WWII, and the follow-up 1967 Protocol. The 1951 Convention on the Status of Refugees outlined the legal definition and rights of refugees and the obligations of receiving countries. Taken today as customary international law, this agreement was premised on a right to move. In the 21st century, the refugee experience globally has been characterized by decreased mobility; protracted journeys that are punctuated with legal and physical waits and permanent residency in informal encampments; or increasingly dangerous travels via informal, illegal, and unsafe smuggling networks. Refugee management is a global process that both transcends and is shaped by the fortification of borders\u2014national and otherwise. While much of the current legal framework dictating the rights of refugees was adopted in the context of large-scale war, in the 21st century causes of forced displacement include those that are war-induced or famine-induced, or caused by environmental change, natural disasters, government coercion or oppression, and the construction of large infrastructural projects, such as dams or mega-event complexes. To study refugees from a geographic perspective is to examine the spatial dimensions of the nation state system that legally and materially produces refugees, the multiple and interacting scales of government that oversee and manage refugee movements and settlement, and the embodied spatial experience of being displaced and dislocated across time and space. Moreover, geography offers methodological frameworks to understand and study the origins, impacts, and experience of forced displacement.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0237","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,23]],"date-time":"2021-11-23T06:20:43Z","timestamp":1637648443000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Geography of Refugees"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,23]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Geography of Refugees"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,23]],"date-time":"2021-11-23T06:20:43Z","timestamp":1637648443000},"score":13.058124,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0237.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,23]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0237","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,23]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:39Z","timestamp":1714731519039},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Physical geography is the study of the processes that shape the Earth\u2019s surface, the animals and plants that inhabit it, and the spatial patterns they exhibit. Self-identified in the mid- to late 1800s, physical geographers and in particular geomorphologists dominated the discipline of geography to the late 1930s. But emphasis on description and classification of climates, landforms, and biomes and an unhealthy dose of environmental determinism weakened physical geography to its low point in the 1950s. Physical geography along with human geography underwent radical quantification in the late 1950s and early 1960s. This was followed in the 1970s by a period of intense disciplinary specialization, resulting in the recognition of five broad divisions of physical geography: geomorphology, climatology, biogeography, soil science, and Quaternary environmental change. Within each broad division exists a plethora of subdisciplines and specializations. In the early 21st century, physical geographers and their discipline are undergoing a renaissance in large part due to physical geography\u2019s broad subject matter, its intrinsic interdisciplinary nature, and the accelerating pace of global environmental change. This renaissance is evident in Nicholas J. Clifford\u2019s redefinition of physical geography in \u201cGlobalization: A Physical Geography Perspective\u201d (Clifford 2009, cited under General Overviews): \u201cAt a fundamental level, Physical Geography has always sought to describe and understand the multiple subsystems of the environment and their connections with human activity: it is global and globalizing at its very roots.\u201d This updated definition stresses the notion that physical geographers must embrace \u201clarger-scale issues of environment and development and environmental change.\u201d Human activity is creating a new geologic era\u2014the Anthropocene. In reaction to this theme, many have argued that physical geographers must become more interdisciplinary while retaining a spatioanalytic approach to their study of human-environmental interactions. Irrespective of disciplinary membership, in the coming decades, if a more integrative physical geographic discipline continues to emerge, physical geographers will become indispensable\u2014global warming will affect the spatial and temporal patterns of local, regional, and global temperatures; precipitation; and evapotranspiration, which affect the following processes (among many others): weathering rates, soil erosion, shallow landslide occurrence, flood hydrologies and river planforms, animal and plant distributions, sea level, and glacier and permafrost melting. Finally, remote sensing and digital mapping and analysis are among many exciting new arenas in physical geography. It is possible, inter alia, to predict soil attributes by using terrain analysis, to predict high spatial and temporal resolution rainfall, to estimate ice-sheet surface lowering, and to estimate soil moisture.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0005","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]],"date-time":"2013-03-19T17:56:38Z","timestamp":1363715798000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Physical Geography"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Mark","family":"Welford","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Physical Geography"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:33:20Z","timestamp":1632425600000},"score":13.038347,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0005.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0005","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T22:47:31Z","timestamp":1774046851895,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The world is becoming increasingly urbanized. In 2007, an urban milestone was reached when the percentage of people living in cities around the world exceeded 50 percent for the first time in history. By 2050, two-thirds of the world\u2019s population is projected to be living in urban areas. To put these figures into historical perspective, in 1950 less than one-third of the world\u2019s population was urbanized. Urban geography can help us understand urbanization trends and their expression in urban spatial structure and to relate these to our own lives and concerns. The study of urban geography can help us have a better appreciation of the economics of what goes on within cities and recognize the interdependencies among local, national, and international economic contexts in an increasingly globalized world. It can provide us with a framework for conceptualizing urbanism in conjunction with an appreciation of history and the relationships between society and culture. It can illuminate the interplay of science and technology with social, economic, and political change; reveal important dimensions related to race, ethnicity, gender, and sexuality; identify important issues concerning social inequality, urban segregation, and gentrification; raise concerns about urban environmental quality; and point to important lessons for urban governance and policy. Most of all, of course, the study of urban geography can help us analyze and interpret the communities and landscapes of cities and metropolitan areas for a better understanding of the people who live in urban areas around the world. As such, urban geography is arguably one of the most important subdisciplines within geography, and especially within human geography.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0084","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]],"date-time":"2013-03-19T17:56:38Z","timestamp":1363715798000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Urban Geography"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Linda","family":"McCarthy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Urban Geography"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,21]],"date-time":"2023-08-21T03:46:31Z","timestamp":1692589591000},"score":12.994819,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0084.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0084","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,9]],"date-time":"2025-12-09T11:39:15Z","timestamp":1765280355077},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
\u201cLegal geography\u201d encapsulates a breadth of scholarship. Within legal geography, there is considerable debate as to what the boundaries of law and geography are and should be. Some scholars argue that legal geography is a nascent subdiscipline of human geography. Others argue that more than a discipline, legal geography is an intellectual commitment to a particular kind of multidisciplinary engagement with the law. With such a seemingly divergent set of interests, defining the bounds of legal geography can be challenging. Throughout the literature on legal geography there is a consistent thread: legal geography concerns the co-constitution of law, space, and power. Legal geography is a law-in-society approach, meaning that scholarship in legal geography is concerned with law\u2019s central relationship to social processes; law cannot be understood outside of the spatial and temporal social, political, and economic conditions of its production. In this work, law is defined along three, often overlapping lines: law as process, law as text, and law as practice\u2014each with a focus on law as a mechanism of power in law and (in)justice in society. Existing scholarship has focused on questions of environment; courtroom architecture; human rights; neoliberal globalization; property relations and the right to the city; colonialism and postcolonialism; race, migration, and citizenship; and methodological considerations. It has often centered on the law as a practice of Global North state power. Recent calls by North American legal geographers and existing work by Australian legal geographers has begun to push legal geography into new terrain: spaces outside the Global North. Recent engagement with feminist scholarship has also provided new opportunities to explore the spatially uneven gendered and embodied effects of law. This work, with its international and intersectional approach, provides important direction for the future of legal geography.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0244","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,28]],"date-time":"2022-11-28T10:21:55Z","timestamp":1669630915000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Legal Geography"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Christian","family":"Pettersen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,29]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Legal Geography"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,28]],"date-time":"2022-11-28T10:21:55Z","timestamp":1669630915000},"score":12.992189,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0244.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,29]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0244","published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,29]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:41Z","timestamp":1714731521096},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Since its inception, humanistic geography has often been contested as a \u201creal\u201d discipline. Sometimes used (incorrectly, some critical theorists say) interchangeably with the concept of humanism because of its focus on the human in all its forms (e.g., agency, awareness, consciousness, creativity, etc.), humanistic geography focuses on products of human activity. Humanistic geography can also be seen as a way to understand those events considered valuable and meaningful to humans. Although usually seen as a specifically human geography pursuit, as philosopher, author, and geographer Yi-Fu Tuan alludes, it can (and should) also play a role in physical geography. Some physical geographers realize that \u201chard\u201d science still includes humanistic tenets and advocate a need for infusing humanistic geography into that field. This new physical geography critique notwithstanding, humanistic geography is usually historically equated with the French school of human geography (such as the writings by Paul Vidal de la Blache) along with Neo-Kantianism and Robert E. Park\u2019s Chicago School pragmatism, while also focusing on (sense of) place and the individual\u2019s interpretation of place\u2014although \u201cpeople\u201d and \u201chumans\u201d also collectively fall under its umbrella.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0015","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]],"date-time":"2013-03-19T17:56:38Z","timestamp":1363715798000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Humanistic Geography"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Casey D.","family":"Allen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Humanistic Geography"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,23]],"date-time":"2023-05-23T12:37:17Z","timestamp":1684845437000},"score":12.949624,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0015.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0015","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:51Z","timestamp":1714731531582},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The term \u201cgeography of justice\u201d can be interpreted in a number of ways. One reading of the term relates to the spatial aspects of claims to justice. This interpretation is often related to questions of social justice, work that examines fundamental questions of inequality and the uneven distribution of resources or harm. The roots of this scholarship are diverse, inspired by anticapitalist, anticolonial, and feminist movements of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Despite the diversity of these approaches, they all express an interest in addressing questions of spatial justice, where the organization of space is understood as a crucial aspect of the entrenchment of injustice within society. At the heart of much of this work is a philosophical question of how justice is interpreted, most crucially whether justice is a universal human condition (perhaps structured around certain human rights) or should be understood as a more localized set of solidarities. These concerns become particularly apparent when questions of spatial justice are considered within structures of power relations. A second interpretation of \u201cgeography of justice\u201d relates to the mechanisms used to address injustice and resolve conflict. Alongside reflections of the spatial qualities of injustice, legal geographers have examined the relationship between law and space. On the one hand, this work has encouraged scholarly reflection on the spatial nature of legal concepts, such as jurisdiction and sovereignty. On the other, it has explored the spatial aspects of trial processes, from the architecture of courtrooms to the spatiality of prisons and internment. A third interpretation of \u201cgeography of justice\u201d turns critical attention to the nature of scholarly inquiry, posing the question, what is a just form of geographical discipline? Much of the work examining forms of spatial justice and legal geographies has reflected on the nature of knowledge production within geography, and the subsequent ways in which certain viewpoints, topics, or voices have been marginalized. Emerging in particular from the fields of feminist, postcolonial, and antiracist scholarship, these reflections have sought to challenge injustices within the discipline of geography. These perspectives have advanced forms of qualitative methodology that focus on positionality: the implications of the researcher\u2019s identity, geography, and history for the nature of knowledge production. Reflecting these three aspects of the \u201cgeography of justice,\u201d the review below does not chart the emergence of a single, coherent body of scholarship. Instead, it seeks to sketch the implications of this fragmentation and diversification, as geographers and others have explored the complex intersection between geography and justice.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0055","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,20]],"date-time":"2014-02-20T16:36:36Z","timestamp":1392914196000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Geography of Justice"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Alex","family":"Jeffrey","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,11,27]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Geography of Justice"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:33:50Z","timestamp":1632425630000},"score":12.9339905,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0055.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,11,27]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0055","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,11,27]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,5]],"date-time":"2026-01-05T22:17:39Z","timestamp":1767651459809},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
This is an interesting entry to compile in that while most work in historical geography\u2014the subdiscipline of geography concerned with the past and its relations with the present\u2014might now be called \u201ccritical historical geography,\u201d the term is scarcely defined. Its story involves changing geographies of environmental and social change (encompassing problems of capitalism, modernity, empire, nation, globalization, violence, and planetary peril, to name just the most prominent) and thus serves as a commentary on changing times and current predicaments from a specific (if eclectic) area of inquiry. This story has been integral to the journey of \u201ccritical geography\u201d over the last sixty years: to fostering recognition that the questions and things the geographer studies are bound up with the past and have a history. Geographical interest in the past is not the preserve of historical geography (the boundaries of the subdiscipline are porous), and not all work referenced in this bibliography comes from researchers who identify themselves as historical geographers. Our term shall be annotated in three (overlapping) ways: to denote, first, work in historical geography that is informed by theory and philosophy (especially questions of power, knowledge, representation, materiality, identity, memory, difference, and human-animal-nature linkages) and has a normative concern not simply with understanding the world but also with trying to change it for the better; second, wider theoretical debates that have grappled with how questions of geography and space are critical (vital) to understanding time and history, and vice versa; and third, historical geographers\u2019 instinctive sensitivity to methodological questions and how the times and spaces in which they live and work influence what they do\u2014and with \u201cthe archive\u201d a key material and social entity and relation (object, site, practice, and way of seeing and knowing). A general overview of this tripartite definition is followed by more detailed commentaries on the three facets, which are given the section headings \u201cCritical of\u00a0.\u00a0.\u00a0.\u201d; \u201cCritical to\u00a0.\u00a0.\u00a0.\u201d; and \u201cCritical Reflexivity\u00a0.\u00a0.\u00a0.\u201d With over one hundred references, the first section is the mainstay of the entry. It recounts the growing and changing scope of critical historical geography by decade and theme (albeit with some intersecting threads), and chronicles from where new and different interests and bodies of work emanate. In all, the following attempt to \u201ccurate\u201d this entry is just that: a selective and subjective story, a construct.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0281","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,20]],"date-time":"2024-03-20T06:54:19Z","timestamp":1710917659000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Critical Historical Geography"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Dan","family":"Clayton","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,21]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Critical Historical Geography"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,20]],"date-time":"2024-03-20T06:54:19Z","timestamp":1710917659000},"score":12.920499,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0281.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,21]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0281","published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,21]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:19:43Z","timestamp":1714731583385},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Work on islands has long played a critical role in the development of many academic disciplines that overlap and are intimately connected with the discipline of geography. Islands were central to Charles Darwin\u2019s theory of evolution and have subsequently been for the development of ecological, sustainability, and resilience approaches that are prevalent in geography in the 2020s. Islanders were the focal points for Margaret Mead\u2019s and Marylin Strathern\u2019s developments of the discipline of anthropology, concerns for Indigenous geographies, and the counterpositioning of nonmodern reasoning to European or Western frameworks of reasoning. Islands and islanders have also long been a key focus for many who have critiqued the forces of colonialism, such as \u00c9douard Glissant, Kamau Brathwaite, Sylvia Wynter, and Derek Walcott, whose work is extremely influential for Critical Black Geographies. More recently, engaging islands and islanders shaped Linda Tuhiwai Smith\u2019s and Epeli Hau\u2018ofa\u2019s influential reappraisal of how academic research itself can and should do better, reorienting toward more geographically appropriate Indigenous perspectives. What this is already telling us is that any bibliography compiled under the title of \u201cGeography and Islands\u201d needs to work beyond the boundaries of neatly defined academic disciplines. The focus is the geographical form, the island, and associated island cultures, and thus geographers who study islands regularly step outside fixed disciplines. Thus, this article presents a range of references that are categorized by way of key early-21st-century island themes and topics that will be of particular concern to geographers. Here, the decades since the late 20th century have seen the rise of a more distinct or focused field of academic inquiry, which has come to be known as \u201cisland studies.\u201d The key characteristics of this field are its diversity, interdisciplinarity, openness, and extremely rapid growth\u2014geographically, intellectually, and in the broad range of topics and subjects being engaged with in the 2020s. Back in the 1970s and 1980s, the term \u201cisland studies\u201d did not have much purchase. In the 2020s, due to the strong repositioning of islands within broader concerns\u2014such as human-nature relations, current developments in environmental and resilience approaches, the ongoing legacies and effects of colonialism, Indigenous geographies, migration patterns, mobilities and movements of humans and nonhumans, geopolitical tensions and strategies, and the Anthropocene, as just some examples\u2014the figure of the island has moved considerably more to the center of many debates (and particularly those debates that concern geographers). This article therefore also reflects the sense of dynamism, as well as the interdisciplinary nature, of work with islands as an exponentially developing field of research.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0230","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,21]],"date-time":"2021-06-21T11:40:19Z","timestamp":1624275619000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Human Geography and Islands"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,23]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Human Geography and Islands"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:41:29Z","timestamp":1632426089000},"score":12.918827,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0230.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,23]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0230","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,23]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,2]],"date-time":"2025-08-02T16:32:01Z","timestamp":1754152321107,"version":"3.41.2"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"9780199874002"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Feminist approaches reconstruct experience, privilege the everyday and embodied as a unit of analysis, and therefore foreground the significance of scale in geographical analyses. Feminist historical geography draws on the tools of feminist analyses in two distinct ways. First, by analyzing the discipline\u2019s own history to recover the silenced or obscured perspectives that shaped geographical knowledge, feminist historical geographical approaches focus on the history of geography as discipline and practice, and the gendered norms that shaped the consolidation of geographical knowledge. Second, feminist historical geography uses the tools of historical research and its conceptual frameworks to study events and processes, with an attention to the importance of space: geographical difference (i.e., differences across space) but also the interweaving of space and time, using the critical tools of feminist analyses. One of the persistent refrains in reflections on feminist historical geographical research is that it rarely \u2018travels under its own name.\u2019 What this means is that feminist researchers using historical methods can be found in many subfields, and yet their work tends to not be identified as \u2018historical geography\u2019 but rather as \u2018feminist geography\u2019 or as historically sensitive contributions to their subfield. Landmark texts in feminist economic geography, for example, such as work exploring the spatial dimensions of women\u2019s work in the past, may be recognized for their contribution to the theorizing of women and labor, or gender and labor, but are less often included as works of historical geography. Does feminist historical geography still travel in disguise today? What are the stakes of identifying as a feminist historical geographer in this context? These are all live and compelling questions as knowledge practices have material effects, shaping the editorial decisions of academic journals, the criteria for funders, the training of research students, and more. The context shaping feminist historical geographical work has as much to do with the direction of the subfield of historical geography over time as the ambitions of individual scholars. This bibliography takes the view that pluralizing what is included as feminist historical geographical work mirrors many of the most recent reviews of the subfield, where feminist historical geography includes work on women\u2019s history and women\u2019s spaces, as well as the gendering of space and intersectional approaches, all shaped by concerns for telling \u2018other\u2019 stories of the discipline\u2019s history, and of myriad geographies. What is truly exciting about the expanded definition and inclusion of work traveling under the name of feminist historical geography, as well as other names, is the widening of what is meant by feminist historical geographical work, and the multiplying of empirical sites on which geographers inspired by feminist approaches are turning their analytical lens.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0292","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,22]],"date-time":"2025-07-22T04:04:50Z","timestamp":1753157090000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Feminist Historical Geography"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Maria","family":"Fannin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,23]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Feminist Historical Geography"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,22]],"date-time":"2025-07-22T04:04:50Z","timestamp":1753157090000},"score":12.879108,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0292.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,23]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0292","published":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,23]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:52Z","timestamp":1714731532112},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
A sustained inquiry into film by geographers began in the 1980s. Films were studied as cultural texts and as cultural commodities. Film as text assumes that it is authored, read, and interpreted according to the unique positionalities and contexts of viewing. Geographers deploying the author-text-reader (ATR) model tend to operate from a variety of anti-essentialist standpoints and have used this approach to answer questions about how the internal meanings of films are produced and consumed, paying particular attention to issues such as the city, mobility, landscape, gender, sexuality, and geopolitics. Conversely, geographers interested in film as a cultural commodity, an object of symbolic value circulating within the global economy, may choose instead to follow a production-product-distribution-consumption approach. According to this model, the significance of cinematic goods cannot be wholly understood by focusing on the film texts\u2019 internal meaning but must be examined in relation to the economic conditions of their production and consumption. Film is therefore an assemblage of textual and extratextual processes and actors. Research in this area has focused on issues such as the industrial complex of film production, distribution, and consumption; the transnational practices of film industries following the information revolution of the 1970s; and the ensuing cultural hegemony of Hollywood on the global stage. Although the continued use of the text metaphor has been the subject of debate since the turn of the twenty-first century, this approach and its attention to film content has come to prevail in film geography research and hence constitutes a large portion of the works selected in this article. There has been a rising interest in cinematic cartography with some special journal collections published as notable books, including Tom Conley\u2019s Cartographic Cinema in 2007 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press); a special issue on cinematic cartography (Cartographic Journal 46, no. 1 [2009]), edited by S\u00e9bastien Caquard and D.\u00a0R. Fraser Taylor; Film, Mobility and Urban Space: A Cinematic Geography of Liverpool by Les Roberts in 2012 from Liverpool University Press; the special collection \u201c#Mapping\u201d in NECSUS 18, no. 2 (2018) by Avezz\u00f9, Castro, and Fidotta; and Media\u2019s Mapping Impulse by Lukinbeal et al. in 2019 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag). More recent publications are reflective of place-based film studies where landscapes are produced or consumed. A special issue, Doing Film Geography (Volume 87, Supplement 1), with fifteen papers was edited by Chris Lukinbeal and Elisabeth Sommerlad for GeoJournal in 2022. The editors\u2019 work reflects a growing movement toward empiric place-based fieldwork paired with a variety of analytic techniques, such as hermeneutics, economics, cartographic, and nonrepresentational theories, to name a few.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0097","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,3,31]],"date-time":"2014-03-31T22:21:44Z","timestamp":1396304504000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Geography and Film"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Christopher","family":"Lukinbeal","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,3,27]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Geography and Film"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,23]],"date-time":"2023-05-23T12:38:09Z","timestamp":1684845489000},"score":12.863046,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0097.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,3,27]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0097","published":{"date-parts":[[2014,3,27]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,4]],"date-time":"2026-04-04T05:55:27Z","timestamp":1775282127201,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Geography has engaged in the study of empire since its early days as an academic discipline. Few disciplines have such a clear complicity with this political formation, that feeds on territorial growth through military power, and that limits political sovereignty in the peripheries. In fact, a temporal correspondence exists between the birth of modern geography and the emergence of a new phase of capitalist imperialism during the 1870s. Viewed as the queen of the imperial sciences over a century ago, geographies of empire have changed throughout time, reflecting the modifications in the discipline and the transformation in the nature of empires. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and under environmental determinism, geographical knowledge produced by the likes of Frederich Ratzel or Alfred Mackinder lent scientific credibility to ideologies of imperialism while, at the same time, they legitimized the scientific claims of geography as an academic discipline. Climatic and acclimatization studies and prerogatives were pivotal to construct moralistic considerations of both people and places. During the first half of the 20th century, geographies of empire were dominated, in part, by the regional tradition of French geographic inquiry, which cultivated a regional, zonal approach, while work with a focus on empire had a global and zonal tropicality architecture. Quantitative and neopositivist geography approaches in the second half of the 20th century had a less marked influence. Since the late 1980s, a concern for \u201cempire\u201d has returned to geography, and various subdisciplines have focused on the imperial genealogy of the discipline, the links between geography and empire, and the consequences of those links. A more critical engagement with the history of geography has provided contextual histories of global spatial practice and discourse over the past two centuries. The reconsideration of imperialism in view of postcolonial theory, tackling \u201chistorical amnesia,\u201d has also promoted a new wave of studies. In a broad way we can be tempted today to make a division between geographical research, which participated in imperial development and maintenance, and geographical research \u201cafter Empire,\u201d which aims to study and understand the past and present spatialities of empire.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0227","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,23]],"date-time":"2021-02-23T15:44:14Z","timestamp":1614095054000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Geography and Empire"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Sarmento","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Geography and Empire"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:39:09Z","timestamp":1632425949000},"score":12.857903,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0227.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0227","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:19:12Z","timestamp":1714731552631},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The concept of class has been alive in the social sciences and humanities for well over a century. In geography, class was popularized in the late 1970s as Marxism was brought into the field by the likes of David Harvey and Richard Peet, and with the establishment of the journal Antipode at Clark University in Massachusetts. Geographers have approached class from the vantage point of key concepts of geographical inquiry\u2014namely space, place, scale, and the environment. In recent decades, alongside the postmodern turn in the social sciences and humanities, research and thinking about class has been challenged by feminism and antiracist thinking, which have questioned the centrality of class in explanatory critique. It is argued that the class-centric approach to society ignores, or heavily underemphasizes, the gendered and racial dimensions of society. Given the race- and gender-based fragmentation of the working class, the class approach could not present a unified force against capitalism, so there was a need for new conceptualizations that went beyond class. Later works in this strain of thought argued that class position only matters as a site of experience and does not necessarily provide any potential for resistance. As such, the power of class as a concept has become increasingly diluted in the field, with a seeming resurgence that plateaus with the triad of oppression (race, gender, class) and the so-called method of intersectionality. More recently, debates surrounding class as a category have resurfaced in geography in relation to studies on the agency of labor, but this work has been found wanting for its voluntarism and empiricism. There is only a minority voice in geography and allied disciplines that argues for the primacy or centrality of class as it is rooted in the relation of production, and that has implications for understanding nonclass social oppression and anti-capitalist resistance.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0204","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,26]],"date-time":"2019-04-26T07:33:31Z","timestamp":1556264011000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Geography and Class"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Raju J.","family":"Das","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,24]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Geography and Class"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:20:24Z","timestamp":1632424824000},"score":12.822458,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0204.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,24]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0204","published":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,24]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T15:54:18Z","timestamp":1773071658592,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
\u201cNecropolitics\u201d denotes powerful processes that segment populations into those whose lives are valued and those who are exposed to death. The term is often used to go beyond analyses narrowly focused on \u201cbiopolitics,\u201d i.e., the government and furthering of the life of the population. Instead, the notion of necropolitics centers governmental practices and rationalities that expose certain groups to premature death, whether through direct killing and slaughter or through abandonment and slow violence. Achille Mbembe introduced the term. In his homonymous essay, Mbembe emphasizes the emergence of sovereign power in modernity through colonial capitalism and the slave plantation to draw attention to the persistence in the contemporary world of racialized dehumanization and militarized \u201cterror formations\u201d that cast those deprived of biopolitical care into liminal \u201cdeath-worlds.\u201d In geography and cognate disciplines, the bulk of writings on necropolitics examine uneven social and spatial formations and associated governing technologies that rely on violence, bordering, confinement, and abandonment. While a main focus has been on racialization, anti-blackness, and Black resistance, various authors also scrutinize the role of gender, sexuality, dis\/ability, intersectionality, and more-than-human necropolitics. In doing so, authors consider a range of sites, scales, and spatialities. Most prominently, this includes the camp, zones of exception, and the plantation. These are examined, on the one hand, as locales of deadly violence and, on the other, as contested topologies that subsist across social realms at local and global scales. Likewise, various works engage with prisons and borders as well as carceral spaces and border regimes. Some authors discuss violence-based displacement and dispossession in geopolitical contexts of imperialism, settler-colonialism, resource conflicts, and war, or how globalized capitalist accumulation and extraction create so-called surplus populations and landscapes of waste and toxicity. Urban and political geographers discuss the necropolitical governance of cities, for instance in connection to exclusionary housing politics or militarized, racist, and anti-poor policing in city centers and peripheries. Moreover, attention has been drawn to \u201cdeathscapes\u201d and undignified sites of dying and interment, including in oceans, deserts, or \u201cpotter\u2019s fields,\u201d as well as practices of commemoration, survival, and resistance emerging in deadly contexts. Finally, some works interrogate the conceptual foundations of necropolitics and discuss methodological challenges arising from doing research in the presence or aftermath of destruction and death. Taken together, debates in geography and cognate fields have generated a rich vocabulary that expands our understanding of deadly power, including notions of \u201cnecropolitical governance,\u201d \u201cnecrogeopolitics,\u201d \u201cnecro-subjection,\u201d \u201cnecroviolence,\u201d \u201cnecropolis,\u201d \u201cnecroburbia,\u201d \u201cnecrosettlements,\u201d \u201cnecrolandscaping,\u201d and \u201cnecroresistance.\u201d<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0289","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,16]],"date-time":"2025-04-16T12:58:29Z","timestamp":1744808309000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Necropolitics and Geography"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Jan Simon","family":"Hutta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,17]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Necropolitics and Geography"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,16]],"date-time":"2025-04-16T12:58:30Z","timestamp":1744808310000},"score":12.804018,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0289.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,17]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0289","published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,17]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:20:36Z","timestamp":1714731636720},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Geocomputation refers broadly to various work using geographic data combined with computational technologies and methodologies. A dynamic area of research, geocomputation work covers many areas of application seeking to leverage the affordances of computing, especially high-performance computing, for solving spatial problems and working with geographic data. Embracing the rapid advances in computational capacity while engaging with long established problems in understanding geographic and spatial relationships results in an area of scholarship inviting a range of expertise to contribute. The difficulties of exploring the boundaries of what is or is not geocomputation reveal themselves especially in earlier work outlining the area, and concepts like geographic information systems\/science (both referred to here as GIS) receive variant embrasure. New ideas for analysis and new names for what that analysis might be, emerging from\/through and within\/without geocomputation, prove successful in maintaining a dynamic and energetic area of practice. At the same time, this range of knowledge, skills, and experience provides a difficult landscape for educational efforts. Teaching and learning (taken together here as \u201ceducation\u201d) along the broad and deep interface between geocomputation and geography requires difficult choices, learning pathways, and execution in curriculum and instruction. Grappling with the balance and inclusion of computational components in geography education remains an open opportunity for investigation. Whether computing education includes geography is a different discussion.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0277","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,25]],"date-time":"2023-10-25T12:49:15Z","timestamp":1698238155000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Geocomputation in Geography Education"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Forrest","family":"Bowlick","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Geocomputation in Geography Education"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,25]],"date-time":"2023-10-25T12:49:15Z","timestamp":1698238155000},"score":12.792017,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0277.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0277","published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:48Z","timestamp":1714731528147},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Ethics traditionally involves systematic intellectual deliberations on morality. Increasingly since the early 1980s geography has embraced the conceptual and practical relationships between ethics and the discipline. Geographers have, for example, taken up careful examination of the moral significance of concepts such as place, location, proximity, and distance and engaged in foundational debates regarding the pursuit of social and spatial justice. Conceptual work has also included examination of the moral relations between self\/other that a long tradition of cosmopolitan ethical thought necessarily calls into question; and between human and natural worlds looking, for example, at environmental caretaking for future generations. Among the more applied ethical issues taken up in the discipline are the ethics of mapping the social and physical world and, more recently, grappling with the ever more complex ethical implications of working with and on new spatial and digital technologies. This article reviews major resources for much of this conceptual and practical work in geography and builds generally on the work of scholars in the field as well as more directly upon the helpful and thoughtful comments of Clive Barnett (University of Exeter), Mark Israel (Murdoch University), and Jeff Popke (East Carolina University) as well as two anonymous referees.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0093","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,6,12]],"date-time":"2013-06-12T17:03:54Z","timestamp":1371056634000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Geography and Ethics"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Iain","family":"Hay","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Luke","family":"Dickens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,30]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Geography and Ethics"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:33:21Z","timestamp":1632425601000},"score":12.754423,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0093.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,30]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0093","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,30]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,18]],"date-time":"2025-02-18T05:05:49Z","timestamp":1739855149410,"version":"3.37.3"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Given the centrality of themes like scale, place, circulation, and power to geographical research, the discipline is well represented in the literature of the so-called infrastructural turn of the past two decades. Geographers have explored the ways that infrastructures are not just technical and material objects\u2014roads, canals, bridges, dams, and power lines\u2014but also enroll many of the external conditions that shape the possibility for their construction, maintenance, or failure\u2014things like politics, climate, visible and invisible\/undervalued labor, and technological protocols and innovations. Their focus on infrastructure has offered interested scholars new paths through which to explore the production of, among other things, urban space, energy geographies, media and communications, and care networks. While all existing infrastructures (as opposed to speculative or imagined ones) are historical geographical sites\u2014constructed over time in specific places\u2014a historical geography of socio-technical systems might intuitively be limited to the modern state era, or at least the time period loosely termed \u201cmodernity.\u201d State capacity, and more specifically state centralization\u2014be it in colonial extraction or the distribution of material\u2014is a major, if not the major, focus of much infrastructural development as such. Infrastructures, however, are material and relational formations that circulate power across multiple spatial and temporal scales. They are designed and constructed by historical actors and are themselves contemporary actants\u2014continually shaping the nature of power, exchange, and circulation well beyond the specifics of state power. Across the contours of existing infrastructures, there are historical traces of interconnectedness and disjunction, inclusion and neglect. These pathways\u2014woven through countless intersections and sedimented in overlapping layers\u2014reflect people\u2019s collective pursuit of resilience and a better tomorrow. They are also iterative and have afterlives, with new regimes of circulation often built on the sites provided by now-defunct connective sinews. Given the expansive historical manifestations of infrastructures, and the fact the infrastructural studies is an interdisciplinary pursuit, it is difficult to identify core texts that sit within just one scholarly tradition or archive. There is, however, a rich and diverse literature that situates and defines infrastructure more broadly. As this bibliography posits, geographers interested in delving into such a capacious term, then, would benefit from reading across and between literatures that seek to outline the broad textures of infrastructural space-making. Historical geographers will find much to offer in the varied theoretical entry points provided by scholars across the humanities, social sciences, engineering, and art. Undoubtedly, infrastructure has extremely broad historical and geographical impacts, so the lists below should be read as entry points and, almost by necessity, provisional and incomplete.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0285","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,17]],"date-time":"2025-02-17T09:39:43Z","timestamp":1739785183000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Historical Geography of Infrastructure"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Richard","family":"Nisa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,19]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Historical Geography of Infrastructure"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,17]],"date-time":"2025-02-17T09:39:43Z","timestamp":1739785183000},"score":12.753294,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0285.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,19]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0285","published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,19]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:42Z","timestamp":1714731522686},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Industrialization broadly refers to the transformation of agrarian-rural societies to industrial-urban societies that are dominated by manufacturing and services. The beginning of this transformation, conventionally referred to as the industrial revolution, is typically traced to the late 18th century in England. Although the term has broader usage, \u201cindustry\u201d is often equated with manufacturing, and industrialization specifically with the growth of manufacturing within the so-called factory system that began to proliferate at this time. The new factories featured mechanical power and the employment of specialized, waged labor to operate machines to supply large volumes of standardized goods to markets mediated by the price mechanism. In the UK, and subsequently in many other countries, the onset of industrialization featured the textile, iron and steel, machine tool, and coal industries. More generally, industrialization is seen as part of the Great Transformation that features the rise of market-based forms of exchange and rapid economic growth based on deepening divisions of labor and economic interdependencies across economic sectors. Indeed, industrialization has involved co-evolutionary changes in agriculture, energy, transportation, and service sectors, as well as in manufacturing. Globally, industrialization has been led and dominated by the capitalist or market economies of western Europe, their New World offshoots, and Japan. The Soviet Union, eastern Europe, and China emphasized industrialization within the framework of centrally planned economies during the mid-20th century; but they have since accepted market forces as the principal means of organizing the production and exchange of goods and services. Similarly, the recent rapid economic growth of newly industrializing economies (NIEs), especially in Asia, and the transitional economies of eastern Europe, has been led by the development of internationally competitive manufacturing sectors. Market-led industrialization is remarkably dynamic and both creative and destructive. While generating vast wealth and facilitating massive increases in human population, industrialization features structural crises and has imposed formidable problems of inequality, poverty, social cohesion, and environmental degradation. Indeed, on a global scale industrialized and rich (i.e., powerful) nations became synonymous with each other (along with poor, non-industrial nations). This connection between industrialization, broadly conceived, and economic growth is modified but not disrupted by the idea of post-industrial societies that are dominated by service sector jobs. Thus, these jobs are themselves highly specialized and many linked to goods-producing activities within increasingly globalized value chains. For 250 years industrialization has exerted massive impacts on society and economy that are now often discussed in the context of globalization. Moreover, the challenges of industrial transformation are incessant: leading countries and regions constantly search for new forms of growth, while laggards seek to transform agrarian-rural societies to an urban-industrial base and \u201ccatch-up\u201d with the leaders. The generation of wealth needs to address issues of its distribution; and the imperatives of growth and efficiency cannot be divorced from social and environmental concerns. Over time and space these challenges are connected and different.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0027","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]],"date-time":"2013-03-19T17:56:38Z","timestamp":1363715798000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Geography of Industrialization"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Roger","family":"Hayter","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Jerry","family":"Patchell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Geography of Industrialization"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:20:57Z","timestamp":1632424857000},"score":12.729595,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0027.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0027","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T04:40:15Z","timestamp":1773808815889,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Social media is a multifaceted virtual space that affords individuals and groups the ability to converse, find and share information, consume entertainment, build (or erode) relationships, and seek out opportunities for employment. It also provides a virtual space for conducting business activities such as marketing and selling a service or good. While at first glance and in its earliest stages social media may have appeared to be purely recreational, the social, cultural, and political impact of the networks, discourse, and activities built through social media is significant. Research taking place about and on social media has become more common in a variety of fields, including the discipline of geography and its many subdivisions. Social media provides the opportunity to study the online behaviors of certain populations and can expand our understanding of what constitutes \u201cfieldwork\u201d in geographic research, particularly as a rising number of geographers turn to the medium to collect data, survey a population of interest, and observe social patterns. Much like in any other fieldwork or methodological technique, there are a growing number of established methods and case studies for using social media as a research tool, although these methods are always being reexamined due to the dynamic nature of the medium. As social media\u2019s expansive impact continues to change how global communication trends and patterns advance, it becomes an increasingly important topic to understand through a geographic lens. In both researching social media as a concept and using social media as a methodological tool, there are ethical considerations when engaging with this medium through a research lens, including user privacy and informed consent. Social media grants geographers an incredible opportunity to examine topics of space and place in digital environments, and the placemaking that can be afforded within social media platforms. The following breadth of citations offers geographers (and those from adjacent disciplines) a starting point for, (1) understanding the histories and theoretical underpinnings of social media (as both a research topic and tool), (2) learning the current methods used for social media research, and (3) exploring the ethical considerations of research conducted in this sphere. Included in this work are also selected journals (both within and outside of geography) that publish social media research, useful introductory books on the topic, several case studies of social media research in both geography and adjacent domains, and references to works that explore the future theories and applications of social media toward research and scholarly endeavor.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0251","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T03:44:09Z","timestamp":1773805449000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Social Media and Geography"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Hannah","family":"Gunderman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Social Media and Geography"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T03:44:10Z","timestamp":1773805450000},"score":12.722222,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0251.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0251","published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]]}}],"items-per-page":20,"query":{"start-index":0,"search-terms":"Geography"}}}