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For the phonology and morphology of the early Germanic languages, an excellent summary is Krahe and Meid (1969). Bach (1965), while primarily concerned with German, includes in part I a valuable summary of early Germanic language and history with extensive further references. Hutterer (1975) is an excellent compendium of the history of all the Germanic languages and of the cultures of their speakers."}],"container-title":["The World's Major Languages"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,4]],"date-time":"2021-04-04T02:24:10Z","timestamp":1617503050000},"score":36.311806,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.taylorfrancis.com\/books\/9781136861932\/chapters\/10.4324\/9780203214961-2"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,1]]},"ISBN":["9780203214961"],"references-count":1,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9780203214961-2","published":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,1]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T05:30:49Z","timestamp":1774589449692,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"BRILL","isbn-type":[{"value":"9789004657236","type":"electronic"},{"value":"9780127282701","type":"print"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1992,1,1]]},"DOI":"10.1163\/9789004657236_003","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,10]],"date-time":"2023-10-10T00:39:42Z","timestamp":1696898382000},"page":"xii-xii","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Abbreviations of Frequently Cited Languages"],"prefix":"10.1163","author":[{"given":"Joseph B.","family":"Voyles","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"374","container-title":["Early Germanic Grammar"],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/brill.com\/view\/book\/9789004657236\/front-3.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/brill.com\/downloadpdf\/title\/23212","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T03:28:28Z","timestamp":1774582108000},"score":36.301247,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/brill.com\/view\/book\/9789004657236\/front-3.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[1992,1,1]]},"ISBN":["9789004657236","9780127282701"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1163\/9789004657236_003","published":{"date-parts":[[1992,1,1]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,20]],"date-time":"2025-12-20T22:28:30Z","timestamp":1766269710750,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"9780199384655"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"<p>Human natural languages come in two forms: spoken languages and signed languages, which are the visual-gestural languages used mainly by Deaf communities. Modern signed language linguistics only began around 1960. Studies have shown that signed languages share similarities with spoken languages at all levels of linguistic description, but that modality\u2014whether vocal-auditory or visual-gestural\u2014plays a role in some of the differences between spoken and signed languages. For example, signed languages show a more simultaneous organization than spoken languages, and iconicity and the use of space play a more important role. The study of signed languages is therefore an important addition to our knowledge of human language in general. Based on the research already carried out, it seems that different signed languages are structurally more similar to each other than different spoken languages. The striking similarities between signed languages have been attributed to several factors, including the affordances of the visual-gestural modality. However, more recent research has also shown differences between signed languages. Some of these may be due to independent diachronic changes in individual signed languages, others to influences from spoken languages. Indeed, for most signed languages there is an intensive contact with at least one, and sometimes several, spoken languages, which undoubtedly influence the signed languages, especially at the lexical level. However, the influence, whether lexical or grammatical, has been explored to a limited extent. It is particularly interesting to examine the extent to which unrelated signed languages are similar and different, and whether contact with the surrounding spoken languages plays a role in this.<\/p>\n               <p>Danish Sign Language and Flemish Sign Language are two signed languages that are not related. By contrast, Danish and Dutch both belong to the Germanic language family, Danish as a North Germanic language, Dutch as a West Germanic language. Some of the features shared by the two signed languages can be explained as modality dependent: they both use spatial morphology to express agreement and complex verbs of motion and location, and both use nonmanual features, that is, facial expression, gaze direction, and head movement, to express, for instance, topicalization and clause boundaries. Other shared features may not be explained as modality dependent in any straightforward way; this is the case with their preference for sentence-final repetition of pronouns and verbs. Moreover, the two signed languages share features that distinguish them from most Germanic languages: they lack a clear subject category and prototypical passive constructions, and they do not have V2-organization with the finite verb in the second position of declarative clauses. Much more research, especially research based on large annotated corpora, is needed to clarify the reasons why unrelated signed languages share many grammatical features, and the influences from spoken languages on signed languages.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/acrefore\/9780199384655.013.1068","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,18]],"date-time":"2024-09-18T04:33:29Z","timestamp":1726634009000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Signed Languages in Co-Existence With Germanic Languages: A Typological Perspective"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Myriam","family":"Vermeerbergen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Elisabeth","family":"Engberg-Pedersen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,18]]},"container-title":["Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics"],"original-title":["Signed Languages in Co-Existence With Germanic Languages: A Typological Perspective"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,16]],"date-time":"2025-09-16T04:31:03Z","timestamp":1757997063000},"score":36.23173,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordre.com\/linguistics\/view\/10.1093\/acrefore\/9780199384655.001.0001\/acrefore-9780199384655-e-1068"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,18]]},"ISBN":["9780199384655"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/acrefore\/9780199384655.013.1068","published":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,18]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,8]],"date-time":"2024-09-08T06:16:23Z","timestamp":1725776183210},"edition-number":"0","reference-count":0,"publisher":"Routledge","isbn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"9780203393086"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,2]]},"DOI":"10.4324\/9780203393086-15","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,2]],"date-time":"2020-12-02T04:42:26Z","timestamp":1606884146000},"page":"227-243","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["10THE GROUPING OF THE GERMANIC LANGUAGES"],"prefix":"10.4324","member":"301","container-title":["Old English and its Closest Relatives"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,22]],"date-time":"2020-12-22T08:09:32Z","timestamp":1608624572000},"score":36.201202,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.taylorfrancis.com\/books\/9781134849000\/chapters\/10.4324\/9780203393086-15"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,2]]},"ISBN":["9780203393086"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9780203393086-15","published":{"date-parts":[[2003,9,2]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,3]],"date-time":"2025-07-03T15:25:32Z","timestamp":1751556332082,"version":"3.32.0"},"publisher-location":"Amsterdam","reference-count":56,"publisher":"John Benjamins Publishing Company","isbn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"9789027208569"},{"type":"electronic","value":"9789027265593"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,18]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>This chapter reports on the similarities and differences between Stylistic Fronting (SF) and related constructions in Icelandic and Faroese. Contrary to the claim that \u201cany category can become an expletive\u201d (<jats:xref>Holmberg 2000<\/jats:xref>), it is argued that stylistically fronted elements and overt expletives are not equivalent. In both languages, expletive insertion is preferred over SF in complement clauses, but in Faroese, unlike in Icelandic, expletive insertion is preferred over SF in adverbial clauses and relative clauses as well. The overall data presented and discussed here suggest that the possibility of SF is partly conditioned by the clause type and the nature of the element fronted by SF and partly by lexical\/idiomatic factors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1075\/sigl.1.10ang","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,10]],"date-time":"2017-02-10T11:18:46Z","timestamp":1486725526000},"page":"277-306","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Stylistic fronting and related constructions in the Insular Scandinavian Languages"],"prefix":"10.1075","author":[{"given":"\u00c1sgr\u00edmur","family":"Angant\u00fdsson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{},{"name":"University of Iceland"},{},{},{"name":"University of Iceland"},{}]}],"member":"1757","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"CIT0331","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780199243709.001.0001","volume-title":"Core Syntax","author":"Adger","year":"2003"},{"key":"CIT0332","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1075\/la.32.01ale"},{"key":"CIT0333","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9582.2007.00134.x"},{"volume-title":"The Syntax of Embedded Clauses in Icelandic and Related Languages","year":"2011","author":"Angant\u00fdsson","key":"CIT0334"},{"key":"CIT0335","first-page":"31","article-title":"Um st\u00edlf\u00e6rslu og skyld or\u00f0ara\u00f0artilbrig\u00f0i \u00ed \u00edslensku og f\u00e6reysku","volume":"36","author":"Angant\u00fdsson","year":"2014","journal-title":"\u00cdslenskt m\u00e1l"},{"key":"CIT0336","first-page":"47","article-title":"On the Morpho-syntax of Verb\/Adverb Placement and fronting in embedded clauses in Modern \u00d6vdalian","volume-title":"Studies in \u00d6vdalian Morphology and Syntax. 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