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549.3 640.8 1190.0 1500 596.23 0.0235 0.2760 611.6 556.3 1167.9 K. Equilibrium is a condition of balance maintained by an equality of opposing forces. There are different types of equilibrium: thermal, mechanical, chemical. The study of thermodynamics has to do with determining end states, and not with the dynamics of the process (e.g., how fast the process change occurs). The concept of equilibrium is important as it is only in an equilibrium state that the thermodynamic properties have meaning. We implicitly assume that the system moves from one state of equilibrium to another very slowly as it undergoes a process, a condition called quasi-equilibrium or a quasi-static process. L. Energy is the capacity for producing an effect. It can be stored within the system as potential energy, kinetic energy, internal energy, etc. It can also be transferred to or from the system by work or heat transfer. Heat is transferred across the boundary of a system to another system or surroundings by virtue of a temperature difference between the two systems. M. Conservation of mass simply states that mass of a substance can be neither created nor destroyed in the processes analyzed. Consider a simple flow system (shown in Figure 2.2.1) when a fluid stream flows into and out of a control volume. If the mass in the system at time \u03b8 is m(\u03b8), then the mass at time \u03b8 + \u03b4\u03b8 is m(\u03b8 +\u03b4\u03b8 ). Assuming that during the time increment d\u03b8, an increment \u03b4m in enters the system and \u03b4m out leaves the system, conservation of mass relation results in m( \u03b8) + \u03b4m in = m(\u03b8 + \u03b4\u03b8) + \u03b4m out which can be simplified as (2.2.3) where For steady flow, and (2.2.4) N. Conservation of energy or the first law of thermodynamics is the basis of most of the analysis done in HVAC. It formulates a relationship between the various quantities shown in Figure 2.2.2. It is described in Chapter 2.1. FIGURE 2.2.1 A simple flow system. FIGURE 2.2.2 Schematic thermodynamic system for steady flow. dm d \u03b8 ------m \u02d9 in m \u02d9 out \u2013= m \u02d9 \u03b4m \u03b4\u03b8 ------= dm d\u03b8 ------0= m \u02d9 in m \u02d9 out = Psychrometry is the study of the properties of moist air, i.e., a mixture of air and water vapor. A thorough understanding of psychrometry is essential since it is fundamental to understanding the various processes related to air conditioning. Atmospheric air is never totally dry; it always contains varying degrees of water vapor. Just like relatively small amounts of trace materials drastically impact the physical properties of steel alloys, small amounts of moisture have a large influence on human comfort. The amount of water vapor contained in air may vary from near zero (totally dry) to a maximum determined by the temperature and pressure of the mixture. Properties of moist air can be determined from tables such as Table 2.2.3, from equations and steam tables as shown below, or from the psychrometric chart (described later). Moist air up to about three atmospheres pressure can be assumed to obey the perfect gas law. Assuming dry air to consist of one gas only, the total pressure p t of moist air, given by the Gibbs-Dalton Law for a mixture of perfect gases, is equal to the individual contributions of dry air and water vapor. p t = p a + p v (2.2.5) where p a is the partial pressure of dry air, and p v is the partial pressure of water vapor. It is because p v << p a that we can implicitly assume water vapor also follows the perfect gas law for atmospheric air. The thermodynamic state of an air-vapor mixture is fully determined if three independent intensive properties are specified. Since one can assume for most of the HVAC processes being studied that the total atmospheric pressure does not change, a chart known as the psychrometric chart, applicable to a specific value of total pressure (commonly the standard atmospheric pressure), is used. The psychrometric chart not only provides a quick means for determining values of moist air properties, it is also very useful in solving numerous process problems with moist air and allows quick visualization of how the process occurs. Hence, for better comprehension, we describe the manner in which it is generated along with the description of the pertinent moist air properties. The primary moist air properties shown on a psychrometric chart are described below: A. Dry-bulb temperature T db or t is the temperature of air one would measure with an ordinary thermometer. This property is the x-axis of the psychrometric chart (Figure 2.2.3). B. Saturation pressure of water vapor: p s or p v,sat can be determined or obtained from steam tables (see Table 2.2.2). For example, the saturation pressure p s of water vapor from Table 2.2.2 at a temperature t = 80\u00b0F is p s = 0.5069 psia, which is about 30 times less than the corresponding partial pressure of dry air p a . C. Humidity ratio or specific humidity or absolute humidity W is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapor to that of dry air, i.e., Using the ideal gas law under saturated air conditions, where V is an arbitrary volume of the air and water vapor mixture, R * is the universal gas constant, MW a is the molecular weight of dry air (28.965), and MW v is the molecular weight of water (18.015). 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