During the Early Modern period, the Spanish kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were unique in many ways. For centuries, they had struggled with significant Islamic and Jewish populations both inside and just beyond their borders. Long after the conquest of Granada and the expulsion of the Jews, the presence of newly converted and assimilated peoples informed Spanish culture. Columbus\u2019s voyages to the Caribbean made Castile the head of an expanding American empire that transformed the kingdom politically, socially, and economically. With the succession of Charles I to the thrones of Castile and Aragon and his subsequent election as Holy Roman Emperor (Charles V), that empire grew to include much of northern and central Europe. Charles\u2019s successors would add Portugal and parts of Asia to its possessions. As a result, Spain\u2019s monarchs, institutions, policies, and social norms became critical in the formation of the early modern world.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199730414-0082","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,5,27]],"date-time":"2010-05-27T19:37:44Z","timestamp":1274989064000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Early Modern Spain"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Allyson M.","family":"Poska","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,5,10]]},"container-title":["Atlantic History"],"original-title":["Early Modern Spain"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:33:52Z","timestamp":1632425632000},"score":18.704494,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199730414\/obo-9780199730414-0082.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,5,10]]},"ISBN":["9780199730414"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199730414-0082","published":{"date-parts":[[2010,5,10]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,23]],"date-time":"2025-11-23T20:24:22Z","timestamp":1763929462589,"version":"3.45.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"University of Wisconsin Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780299249335","type":"electronic"},{"value":"9780299250249","type":"print"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2011,1,11]]},"DOI":"10.2307\/jj.36106167.22","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,23]],"date-time":"2025-11-23T20:22:29Z","timestamp":1763929349000},"page":"243-258","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Controversies over History in Contemporary Spain"],"prefix":"10.2307","member":"1121","container-title":["Spain"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,23]],"date-time":"2025-11-23T20:22:33Z","timestamp":1763929353000},"score":18.645842,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/10.2307\/jj.36106167.22"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011,1,11]]},"ISBN":["9780299249335","9780299250249"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/jj.36106167.22","published":{"date-parts":[[2011,1,11]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]],"date-time":"2024-11-27T05:33:52Z","timestamp":1732685632461,"version":"3.28.2"},"edition-number":"1","reference-count":0,"publisher":"Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.","isbn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"9798400665387"},{"type":"print","value":"9780313302725"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999]]},"DOI":"10.5040\/9798400665387.0006","type":"other","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,24]],"date-time":"2024-01-24T16:12:11Z","timestamp":1706112731000},"page":"193-198","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Notable People in the History of Spain"],"prefix":"10.5040","member":"2984","container-title":["The History of Spain"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,26]],"date-time":"2024-11-26T16:33:15Z","timestamp":1732638795000},"score":18.5777,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.bloomsburycollections.com\/encyclopedia-chapter?docid=b-9798400665387&tocid=b-9798400665387-0000178"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[1999]]},"ISBN":["9798400665387","9780313302725"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5040\/9798400665387.0006","published":{"date-parts":[[1999]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]],"date-time":"2024-11-27T05:33:22Z","timestamp":1732685602410,"version":"3.28.2"},"edition-number":"2","reference-count":0,"publisher":"ABC-CLIO, LLC","isbn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"9798400665394"},{"type":"print","value":"9781440868405"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019]]},"DOI":"10.5040\/9798400665394.0007","type":"other","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,21]],"date-time":"2023-11-21T16:38:18Z","timestamp":1700584698000},"page":"205-210","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Notable People in the History of Spain"],"prefix":"10.5040","member":"2984","container-title":["The History of Spain"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,26]],"date-time":"2024-11-26T16:32:52Z","timestamp":1732638772000},"score":18.428534,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.bloomsburycollections.com\/encyclopedia-chapter?docid=b-9798400665394&tocid=b-9798400665394-0001382"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019]]},"ISBN":["9798400665394","9781440868405"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5040\/9798400665394.0007","published":{"date-parts":[[2019]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,10]],"date-time":"2024-05-10T02:57:26Z","timestamp":1715309846329},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199791279","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Spanish military history since the Reconquista has traditionally been understood as occurring within two broad chronological periods. During the first phase, starting with the dual reign of Ferdinand and Isabella (1479\u20131516), and continuing to the Thirty Years\u2019 War, Spain was a superpower, dominant within Europe as well as in its own overseas empire. From the late 17th century to the Spanish-American War of 1898, Spain was in relative decline, overshadowed by rising British and French economic and military power, and struggling to maintain a European and global role. After 1898, Spain was no longer even a minor power, confined as it was to a handful of colonies, and it was a nonfactor in both world wars. While, in general, this is an accurate description, this history was punctuated by significant attempts at military revival, including in the mid-19th century and during World War II (in connection with the Axis powers). While the historiography of Spanish military history in the English-speaking world has focused on the earlier centuries of Spanish strength, as well as on the Spanish Civil War, Spanish-language works have covered a broader scope, thus accounting for what appears to be a relative imbalance between the major fields of study. There has also been a relative deficit within the historiography of works on tactical, and especially operational, warfare. In the 20th century the discipline suffered from the impact of a civil war, self-imposed exile by many historians after that conflict, and ideological and professional restrictions under the Franco regime, all of which left military history almost the exclusive domain of the professional military. With the liberalization of universities from the 1970s onward, many new scholars focused more on broader political and sociological topics related to military affairs, rather than research on traditional military subjects. In many cases, it has been foreign historians who have introduced the most innovative research into Spanish historiography. Perhaps the best example is the thesis of the \u201cmilitary revolution,\u201d the early modern transformation of military operations, articulated most clearly and successful in Parker 2004 (cited under Habsburg Spain), a work on the history of Spain\u2019s military engagement in the Netherlands, in the context of its broader imperial project. Especially since the 2000s, a broader range of historians have engaged more actively in operational and strategic histories, as well as participating in vibrant historiographical debates, such as those on the Spanish Civil War and the role of the former dictator Francisco Franco during that conflict and beyond.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199791279-0097","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,6,12]],"date-time":"2013-06-12T17:03:09Z","timestamp":1371056589000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Spain since the Reconquista"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Wayne H.","family":"Bowen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,28]]},"container-title":["Military History"],"original-title":["Spain since the Reconquista"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:40:02Z","timestamp":1632426002000},"score":18.290768,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199791279\/obo-9780199791279-0097.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,28]]},"ISBN":["9780199791279"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199791279-0097","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,5,28]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:57:21Z","timestamp":1714730241388},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199920105","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Considering all the historical periods of art in Spain, the Renaissance may be one of the most difficult periods to be defined. This is partly due to the intrinsic difficulty of the universal concept and, especially, to its application to the Spanish context. This is why, up to recent times, European art historiography had not even considered its existence. Fortunately, this situation has changed since the mid-20th century due to the new perspectives from abroad, a profound renewal of our own historiography (more accentuated since the 1970s), and the restoration of Spanish democracy. While the traditional Spanish historiography, characterized by a positivist approach, had focused on biographical aspects and descriptive analyses of works through studies based on geographical areas, the new historiography is more interested in understanding works in their contexts, that is, to perceive them as images coordinated with the cultural, social, and political environments in which they originate. This objective has been achieved through the accelerated translation of representative books and authors proposing innovative methodologies for the history of art in Europe and the Americas since the mid-20th century and the new approaches promoted by foreign historians on the Renaissance in the Iberian Peninsula. This dual situation stimulated local historiography, resulting in a review of traditional historiography and questioning old assumptions conceived in both Spain and other countries. Although the real existence of the Renaissance in Spain has been amply discussed and denied by some experts for a long time, we cannot negate that reality. This issue should be addressed with due attention, highlighting its particularities, and avoiding any derogatory interpretation given when compared with Italy. This new perspective reflects the personality of the Spanish Renaissance and its contributory value to culture in the early modern period, especially its impact on the Americas. Although considered a \u201cperipheral\u201d nation when compared with the Italian \u201cfocal\u201d point, Spain offers significant and original differences in certain aspects that are considered essential for the definition of Renaissance such as its intimate connection with humanism or the canonical observation of the language of antiquity. The Spanish Renaissance is characterized by the survival of Gothic and Moorish forms and taste, and periodization, which was adopted later than in Italy, since the classicist language did not consolidate until the cinquecento and lasted until well into the seicento. Finally, the Catholic values of the Spanish monarchy contributed to the religious influence that permeated Renaissance art.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199920105-0168","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,25]],"date-time":"2021-05-25T07:40:20Z","timestamp":1621928420000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Renaissance Art and Architecture in Spain"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]]},"container-title":["Art History"],"original-title":["Renaissance Art and Architecture in Spain"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:40:57Z","timestamp":1632426057000},"score":18.170248,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199920105\/obo-9780199920105-0168.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]]},"ISBN":["9780199920105"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199920105-0168","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,27]],"date-time":"2024-11-27T05:33:35Z","timestamp":1732685615691,"version":"3.28.2"},"edition-number":"1","reference-count":0,"publisher":"Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.","isbn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"9798400665387"},{"type":"print","value":"9780313302725"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999]]},"DOI":"10.5040\/9798400665387.ch-005","type":"other","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,24]],"date-time":"2024-01-24T16:12:11Z","timestamp":1706112731000},"page":"57-72","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Imperial Spain"],"prefix":"10.5040","member":"2984","container-title":["The History of 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Portugal"],"prefix":"10.2307","member":"1121","container-title":["Spain"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,23]],"date-time":"2025-11-23T20:22:31Z","timestamp":1763929351000},"score":17.735935,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/10.2307\/jj.36106167.12"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011,1,11]]},"ISBN":["9780299249335","9780299250249"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/jj.36106167.12","published":{"date-parts":[[2011,1,11]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:57:18Z","timestamp":1714730238862},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199920105","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Polychrome sculpture forms a cornerstone of the religious art produced in Spain in the early modern period. During the 16th century a single piece of wood was often used and during the 17th century wood sections were joined together with nails or dowels. The carved wood was covered by layers of gesso which was then painted. For areas of flesh the paint is done in encarnaciones or flesh tones in gloss or matte finish. For the dressed portions of the sculpture, bole was used to hold gold or silver leaf in place. On other occasions the artist tried to imitate quilted silk known as estofa through the estofado technique where paint was placed on top of the gold or silver leaf and the desired pattern was scratched out or punched. The use of glue-sized fabric or tela encolada was also prevelent and as the 17th century progressed the use of postizos such as cork, bull\u2019s horn, and glass eyes increased. Glass and crystal were used to make eyes and teardrops, the polychrome cork for open wounds, human parts or animal bones were frequently used for making teeth and nails, human or animal hair for eyelashes and hair, and gold, silver, and gemstones to make jewelry. Some sculptures done in the round also had movable parts such as arms or legs and others could be dressed with fabric. The sculptures that are adorned with fabric are known as imagenes de vestir. Besides single figures for procession or worship large altarpieces were also produced in Spain. The retablo incorporates an architectural framework with sculpture and painting that can be traced from the Gothic to the late 17th century. The hierarchy of the sculpture workshop was divided into masters, officials, and apprentices. This hierarchy as well as the labor they practiced was often flexible. For example, we know of officials that were considered masters and of masters that completed all parts of the labor. In general, the labor in the sculpture workshop was divided into specialists such as entallador (carver specialized in decorative motifs), ensamblador (assemblyman), aparejador (preparer), dorador (guilder), estofador (decoration imitating textiles), encarnadores (painters of flesh tones), and lapidarios (gemworkers). Sculptors and painters collaborated on the production of these works. 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