This chapter introduces the structure and content of the volume and provides an overview of each chapter. It also provides definitions of maritime history, globalisation, and the differences between the study of maritime history and the study of global history. It gives an overview of recent maritime historiography and the existing intersection between maritime history and global history. It concludes by claiming that the dynamics of global trade - competition and cooperation in past and present alike - have become central to to the study of maritime history, and asserts that the contributions to this volume reflect the hypothesis.<\/p>","DOI":"10.5949\/liverpool\/9780986497339.003.0001","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,22]],"date-time":"2018-09-22T02:23:06Z","timestamp":1537582986000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Maritime History: A Gateway to Global History?"],"prefix":"10.5949","author":[{"given":"Am\u00e9lia","family":"Pol\u00f3nia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"56","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,20]]},"container-title":["Maritime History as Global History"],"original-title":["Maritime History: A Gateway to Global History?"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,28]],"date-time":"2022-07-28T10:00:30Z","timestamp":1659002430000},"score":8.754877,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/liverpool-scholarship-online\/book\/43390\/chapter\/363200941"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2010,1,1]]},"ISBN":["9780986497339","9781786944511"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5949\/liverpool\/9780986497339.003.0001","relation":{"is-identical-to":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.2307\/j.ctt21pxjhv.5","asserted-by":"object"}]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2010,1,1]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T05:30:56Z","timestamp":1771392656822,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199920105","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
History painting is an artistic genre devoted to the representation of significant human action. Since its emergence in Renaissance Italy, it has been defined by two enduring problems: which actions count as significant; and how a static, silent medium can convey the temporal complexity, moral weight, and dramatic force of those actions. Much of the scholarship on this subject has been devoted to exploring how responses to these problems evolved from the Renaissance to the present day. Studies of art theory and practice have traced how concepts such as istoria, decorum, and composition established the genre\u2019s intellectual foundations, while work on rhetorical and poetic analogies has shown how history painting claimed kinship with epic and tragedy to secure its prestige. Institutional histories have examined how academies, salons, and markets codified ideals, structured careers, and mediated public reception. Ideological critiques, drawing on social history, feminism, and post-structuralist theory, have revealed how history painting naturalized political authority, gender roles, and imperial power while also probing the fractures and contradictions within its universalist claims. More recently, global and postcolonial scholarship has expanded the field, situating history painting within colonial encounters, transnational exchanges, and alternative models that unsettle the Franco-Italian canon. Contemporary revivals underscore its continuing relevance, as artists adapt its scale and ambition to confront war, empire, race, and memory. Taken together, these diverse literatures present history painting less as a fixed genre than as a shifting set of aspirations\u2014at once theoretical, institutional, and ideological\u2014that continually cross porous boundaries into other modes of art. The scholarship surveyed here is selective, prioritizing methodological innovation and conceptual sophistication over exhaustive coverage, with an emphasis on studies that illuminate the genre\u2019s theoretical and rhetorical foundations, institutional frameworks, and ideological stakes. While France, which set the norm for history painting, has received the most scholarly attention, this article also incorporates pan-European and global perspectives, charting the evolution of approaches from social history and iconography to post-structuralist theory and critical engagements with race, gender, and power.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199920105-0205","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T04:34:19Z","timestamp":1771389259000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["History Painting"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Aaron","family":"Wile","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"container-title":["Art History"],"original-title":["History Painting"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T04:34:19Z","timestamp":1771389259000},"score":8.7505665,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199920105\/obo-9780199920105-0205.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"ISBN":["9780199920105"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199920105-0205","published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]],"date-time":"2025-06-20T04:06:03Z","timestamp":1750392363815,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780197768709","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
To the casual observer, the topic of mining history is a natural fit with the field of environmental history. Mining, after all, has caused massive landscape changes; mines and their downstream production facilities are responsible for large-scale air, water, and soil pollution problems. After mines close, they are very often the focus of complex environmental remediation projects, some of which raise new pollution risks and trade-offs for nearby communities, all potential fodder for the work of environmental historians. Furthermore, scholars and popular historians have published a vast amount of mining history focused on themes such as labor, the social life of mining towns, mine accidents, and business history. Many of these works are local histories that concentrate on an individual mine, a particular labor dispute, or a single mining company. In terms of genre, these works have taken the form of memoirs (authored by prospectors or individual miners), oral histories, commissioned company histories, and scholarly works, all valuable scaffolding on which to build environmental histories. Nonetheless, the vast majority of environmental histories of mining have been published only since 2010 (a reflection, perhaps, of the field\u2019s slow movement away from themes such as wildlife conservation and natural parks toward more research on industrial landscapes). In a relatively short time, however, environmental historians have pushed the field of mining history into multiple new thematic areas: the immense power of the mining industry to radically alter landscapes; the expansion of colonial frontiers and the dispossession of subsistence-oriented Indigenous communities from their local landscapes; the struggles of workers and communities against industrial pollution and disease; and studies of environmental changes within broad sectors of the mining industry (i.e., coal, uranium, nickel, copper, etc.). All of this work has helped historians better understand the material foundations\u2014and the immense environmental costs\u2014associated with the great acceleration of industrial production and consumption that has occurred since the Industrial Revolution. In terms of geographic representation, environmental historians have produced work on mining from across the globe, but a disproportionate number of studies have concentrated on the United States and Canada, a reflection of the broader dominance of US scholars in the field of environmental history, and also the recent surge of interest among Canadian scholars in resource development and Indigenous communities. One note to those who are using this article: the boundaries between the categories outlined below are very porous. Very often authors of book-length histories of individual mines will touch on a variety of themes, including pollution, occupational health, colonialism, and Indigenous people. For each work, efforts have been made to find the best thematic fit, and, where there is crossover with other sections, it is so noted. The works are divided thematically because alternative approaches, such as using political boundaries or dividing by the type of material mined, would have resulted in the grouping of very disparate works in a somewhat artificial way. Ultimately, the goal has been to show the way that even very local mining histories speak to themes that are linked through networks of mining knowledge and practice that are global in nature.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780197768709-0018","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T04:07:38Z","timestamp":1750306058000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Environmental History of Mining"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"John","family":"Sandlos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]},"container-title":["Environmental History"],"original-title":["Environmental History of Mining"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T04:07:38Z","timestamp":1750306058000},"score":8.610011,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780197768709\/obo-9780197768709-0018.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]},"ISBN":["9780197768709"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780197768709-0018","published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,20]],"date-time":"2025-10-20T10:24:33Z","timestamp":1760955873329},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"9780190277734"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Historians, anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists, and independent scholars have used oral history and life history, two slightly different but complementary methods, in order to help researchers develop a deeper understanding of the past in Africa. While both methods are best employed when analyzing late-19th-, 20th-, and early-21st-century history, these methods have also been used in histories of slavery and with survivors of trauma, displacement, and marginalization. Oral history is quite effective in gathering the histories of nonliterate populations, or people who are considered marginal to the larger society. While the study of oral history and life history has been powerfully fruitful in Africa, researchers must take care to consider both the benefits and limitations of these approaches. Is an oral history account the ultimate example of an unmediated African voice or do both individual and group memories reflect the selective memory that occurs as a result of the power dynamics evident in any society?<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/acrefore\/9780190277734.013.219","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,20]],"date-time":"2018-11-20T07:57:43Z","timestamp":1542700663000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Oral History and Life History as Sources"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Mary","family":"Dillard","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,20]]},"container-title":["Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History"],"original-title":["Oral History and Life History as Sources"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,31]],"date-time":"2022-08-31T19:02:27Z","timestamp":1661972547000},"score":8.559311,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/africanhistory.oxfordre.com\/view\/10.1093\/acrefore\/9780190277734.001.0001\/acrefore-9780190277734-e-219"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,20]]},"ISBN":["9780190277734"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/acrefore\/9780190277734.013.219","published":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,20]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,12]],"date-time":"2024-05-12T05:52:34Z","timestamp":1715493154807},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195092646","type":"print"},{"value":"9780197560693","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1994,12,8]]},"abstract":"
Charles Darwin has been moldering in his grave now for a full century. But it is not death with which we associate his name; it is life, in all its abundance and variety. In particular, the argument he made for the natural origin of life, including humans, has been one of the most influential ideas in the world over that century\u2019s span. It was accepted a long while back by almost everyone within the reach of modern science, despite the persistent opposition of a raggle-taggle band of creationists. But for all that general acceptance, Darwin\u2019s ideas have not yet become working principles among several large groups of scholars. Take history, for example: reading the journals and dissertations in this field reveals the profound, continuing influence of Adam Smith, Karl Marx, and Sigmund Freud, but still there is no Darwin in our history, at least not as a tradition of historical theory. Evolution and history remain, after a hundred years, separate realms of discourse. There is little history in the study of nature, and there is little nature in the study of history. I want to show how we can remedy that cultural lag by developing a new perspective on the historian\u2019s enterprise, one that will make us Darwinians at last. It will require us to step back now and then from parliamentary debates, social mobility data, and the biographies of illustrious figures in order to examine more elemental questions that concern the long-running human dialogue with the earth. The contemporary disjunction between the study of history and of nature has a fairly obvious explanation. In the eighteenth-century world of the English parson-naturalist, there was no such split; antiquities and natural curiosities lay jumbled together in the same country cupboard. As we moved away from that small rural community, the old broad-gauged, integrative \u201cnatural history\u201d began to fragment into specializations. History increasingly became an archival pursuit, carried on by urban scholars; there was less and less dirt on it. Recently, however, that drift toward an unnatural history has run up against a few hard facts: dwindling energy supplies, population pressures on available food, the limits and costs of technology.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195092646.003.0006","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,11]],"date-time":"2020-11-11T01:02:30Z","timestamp":1605056550000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["History as Natural History"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Donald","family":"Worster","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,12]]},"container-title":["Wealth of Nature"],"original-title":["History as Natural History"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]],"date-time":"2022-08-02T21:09:59Z","timestamp":1659474599000},"score":8.547066,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/book\/40929\/chapter\/349114877"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[1994,12,8]]},"ISBN":["9780195092646","9780197560693"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oso\/9780195092646.003.0006","published":{"date-parts":[[1994,12,8]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,12]],"date-time":"2024-05-12T05:52:41Z","timestamp":1715493161192},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195092646","type":"print"},{"value":"9780197560693","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1994,12,8]]},"abstract":"
Forty years ago a wise, visionary man, the Wisconsin wildlife biologist and conservationist Aldo Leopold, called for \u201can ecological interpretation of history,\u201d by which he meant using the ideas and research of the emerging field of ecology to help explain why the past developed the way it did. At that time ecology was still in its scientific infancy, but its promise was bright and the need for its insights was beginning to be apparent to a growing number of leaders in science, politics, and society. It has taken a while for historians to heed Leopold\u2019s advice, but at last the field of environmental history has begun to take shape and its practitioners are trying to build on his initiative. Leopold\u2019s own suggestion of how an ecologically informed history might proceed had to do with the frontier lands of Kentucky, pivotal in the westward movement of the nation. In the period of the revolutionary war it was uncertain who would possess and control those lands: the native Indians, the French or English empires, or the colonial settlers? And then rather quickly the struggle was resolved in favor of the Americans, who brought along their plows and livestock to take possession. It was more than their prowess as fighters, their determination as conquerors, or their virtue in the eyes of God that allowed those agricultural settlers to win the competition; the land itself had something to contribute to their success. Leopold pointed out that growing along the Kentucky bottomlands, the places most accessible to newcomers, were formidable canebrakes, where the canes rose as high as fifteen feet and posed an insuperable barrier to the plow. But fortunately for the Americans, when the cane was burned or grazed out, the magic of bluegrass sprouted in its place. Grass replaced cane in what ecologists call the pattern of secondary ecological succession, which occurs when vegetation is disturbed but the soil is not destroyed, as when a fire sweeps across a prairie or a hurricane levels a forest; succession refers to the fact that a new assortment of species enters and replaces what was there before.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195092646.003.0007","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,11]],"date-time":"2020-11-11T01:48:43Z","timestamp":1605059323000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["History as Natural History"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Donald","family":"Worster","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,12]]},"container-title":["Wealth of Nature"],"original-title":["History as Natural History"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]],"date-time":"2022-08-02T21:10:00Z","timestamp":1659474600000},"score":8.540331,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/book\/40929\/chapter\/349115025"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[1994,12,8]]},"ISBN":["9780195092646","9780197560693"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oso\/9780195092646.003.0007","published":{"date-parts":[[1994,12,8]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]],"date-time":"2025-06-20T04:06:03Z","timestamp":1750392363212,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780197768709","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Indigenous history is environmental history. Both share an interest in relationships between people and places. With its focus on relationality and kinship, though, Indigenous approaches and analytical frameworks underpin new approaches to the history of whales and whaling, particularly in Pacific and North American historiography. Traditional studies of whaling have focused on the development and expansion of commercial whaling, offered economic histories of trade, and considered cross-cultural relations and impacts on Indigenous societies. New histories of whaling, often led by Indigenous scholars, have addressed a wider set of questions about human and nonhuman relations. In addition to stressing Indigenous presence in whaling, Indigenous scholars emphasize whale cultures and cosmologies because whales are ancestors, kin, and a gift from the sea. Whether subsistence whaling or industrial in scale, Indigenous peoples have been engaged in whaling on a continuous basis, and this ongoing connection is a core theme in the scholarship. Relations between extractive whaling, capitalism and imperialism, and Indigenous communities are an abiding theme in the scholarship, but new approaches informed by Indigenous studies and women\u2019s history have emphasized the role of gender, labor, and mobility within the 19th-century whaling industry. Indigenous whaling includes a variety of practices, from making use of stranded whales to the whale hunt, and they encompass peoples from the Pacific, the Americas, and Asia. The literature on Indigenous whaling, though, is particularly strong in Pacific and North American history.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780197768709-0030","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T04:07:50Z","timestamp":1750306070000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Environmental History of Indigenous Whaling"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Angela","family":"Wanhalla","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]},"container-title":["Environmental History"],"original-title":["Environmental History of Indigenous Whaling"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T04:07:50Z","timestamp":1750306070000},"score":8.520986,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780197768709\/obo-9780197768709-0030.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]},"ISBN":["9780197768709"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780197768709-0030","published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,4]],"date-time":"2024-05-04T16:25:39Z","timestamp":1714839939597},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Palgrave Macmillan","isbn-type":[{"value":"9781137372406","type":"print"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"DOI":"10.1057\/9781137372406.0005","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,3,17]],"date-time":"2014-03-17T10:12:00Z","timestamp":1395051120000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Social History, Cultural History, Other Histories"],"prefix":"10.1057","member":"297","container-title":["History and Causality"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2014,3,18]],"date-time":"2014-03-18T09:34:36Z","timestamp":1395135276000},"score":8.514993,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.palgraveconnect.com\/doifinder\/10.1057\/9781137372406.0005"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[null]]},"ISBN":["9781137372406"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1057\/9781137372406.0005"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,2]],"date-time":"2022-04-02T19:29:04Z","timestamp":1648927744342},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"University of Toronto Press","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,31]]},"DOI":"10.3138\/9781442666498-003","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,16]],"date-time":"2018-09-16T00:25:59Z","timestamp":1537057559000},"page":"3-22","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Introduction: Canadian History, Transnational History"],"prefix":"10.3138","member":"1696","container-title":["Within and Without the Nation"],"link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/toronto.degruyter.com\/view\/book\/9781442666498\/10.3138\/9781442666498-003.xml","content-type":"text\/html","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/www.degruyter.com\/document\/doi\/10.3138\/9781442666498-003\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,22]],"date-time":"2021-04-22T15:37:36Z","timestamp":1619105856000},"score":8.510127,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.degruyter.com\/document\/doi\/10.3138\/9781442666498-003\/html"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,31]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3138\/9781442666498-003","published":{"date-parts":[[2015,12,31]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,12]],"date-time":"2024-05-12T05:01:00Z","timestamp":1715490060817},"publisher-location":"New York, NY : Routledge, 2021. | Series: Routledge research in art history","edition-number":"1","reference-count":0,"publisher":"Routledge","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780429288623","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,29]]},"DOI":"10.4324\/9780429288623-5","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,10,27]],"date-time":"2020-10-27T14:02:31Z","timestamp":1603807351000},"page":"72-86","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Art History and History"],"prefix":"10.4324","author":[{"given":"Stephen","family":"Bann","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"301","container-title":["History and Art History"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,3]],"date-time":"2021-04-03T00:09:51Z","timestamp":1617408591000},"score":8.499986,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.taylorfrancis.com\/books\/9781000226195\/chapters\/10.4324\/9780429288623-5"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,29]]},"ISBN":["9780429288623"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9780429288623-5","published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,29]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T05:30:48Z","timestamp":1771392648946,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780197768709","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Generically, the term \u201cvirgin soil\u201d in relation to an epidemic disease refers to a population that is immunologically naive\u2014meaning its people have had no previous exposure to, and thus no acquired immunity toward, a particular pathogen. It is used often in the epidemiological literature to refer to outbreaks of diseases introduced into relatively isolated groups, such as island populations. However, in the historical, demographic, and bioarcheological literature, it is most commonly associated with the impact of Eurasian pathogens on Indigenous populations in the Americas and the Pacific. The \u201cvirgin soil\u201d hypothesis, also known as the \u201cdisease and depopulation\u201d hypothesis, attributes the decline in Indigenous populations post-European contact largely to the introduction of these new pathogens. Though the idea has been around in some form since the first epidemics, well before germ theory, disease as a historical force gained increased scholarly attention in the mid-twentieth twentieth century. Much of the debate over the impact of introduced pathogens post-contact has been directly tied to demographic work on the estimation of pre-contact Indigenous population sizes. Researchers and scholars from many different academic disciplines across the humanities, social sciences, and sciences have contributed, including demographers, historians, archaeologists, paleopathologists, epidemiologists, and virologists, and more recently those working in genomics. The general trend over time, especially from the 1990s onward, in conjunction with new research in fields such as bioarcheology, is critique of the virgin soil model and its biological determinism and increasing emphasis on both complexity and variability.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780197768709-0063","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T04:34:02Z","timestamp":1771389242000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["History of \"Virgin Soil\" Epidemics"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Heather","family":"Battles","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"container-title":["Environmental History"],"original-title":["History of \"Virgin Soil\" Epidemics"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]],"date-time":"2026-02-18T04:34:02Z","timestamp":1771389242000},"score":8.49421,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780197768709\/obo-9780197768709-0063.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]},"ISBN":["9780197768709"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780197768709-0063","published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,18]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,29]],"date-time":"2024-04-29T06:48:18Z","timestamp":1714373298175},"edition-number":"0","reference-count":0,"publisher":"Routledge","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780203340929","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2004,8,2]]},"DOI":"10.4324\/9780203340929-21","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,6]],"date-time":"2021-03-06T10:27:56Z","timestamp":1615026476000},"page":"148-159","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Portuguese History Teachers\u2019 Ideas about History"],"prefix":"10.4324","member":"301","container-title":["Understanding History"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,6]],"date-time":"2021-03-06T10:28:20Z","timestamp":1615026500000},"score":8.477943,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.taylorfrancis.com\/books\/9781135783464\/chapters\/10.4324\/9780203340929-21"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2004,8,2]]},"ISBN":["9780203340929"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9780203340929-21","published":{"date-parts":[[2004,8,2]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T23:20:32Z","timestamp":1769728832781,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"JSTOR","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["History and Theory"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1965]]},"DOI":"10.2307\/2504118","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2006,6,19]],"date-time":"2006-06-19T22:41:39Z","timestamp":1150756899000},"page":"33","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["The History of Ideas, Intellectual History, and the History of Philosophy"],"prefix":"10.2307","volume":"5","author":[{"given":"Maurice","family":"Mandelbaum","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"1121","container-title":["History and Theory"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,9]],"date-time":"2018-05-09T07:26:50Z","timestamp":1525850810000},"score":8.47452,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/2504118?origin=crossref"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[1965]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/2504118","ISSN":["0018-2656"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0018-2656","type":"print"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[1965]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,6]],"date-time":"2025-12-06T04:36:46Z","timestamp":1764995806615},"publisher-location":"Abingdon, UK","reference-count":0,"publisher":"Taylor & Francis","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780203340929","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"DOI":"10.4324\/9780203340929_chapter_10","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,2,16]],"date-time":"2010-02-16T13:57:44Z","timestamp":1266328664000},"page":"148-160","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Portuguese History Teachers\u2019 Ideas about History"],"prefix":"10.4324","author":[{"given":"OLGA","family":"MAGALH\u00c3ES","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"301","container-title":["UNDERSTANDING HISTORY"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,30]],"date-time":"2017-10-30T18:35:14Z","timestamp":1509388514000},"score":8.473137,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.taylorfrancis.com\/books\/9780203340929"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[null]]},"ISBN":["9780203340929"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9780203340929_chapter_10"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]],"date-time":"2025-06-20T04:06:03Z","timestamp":1750392363936,"version":"3.41.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780197768709","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The study of premodern fisheries is caught between two realities. Scholars have long known that fishing and seafood consumption were major activities across the world and constituted important economic, cultural, and alimentary parts of the human experience, yet the field has long been a niche specialty which remains underdeveloped and imbalanced. In part this reflects the difficulty of studying fishing before the industrial era. Premodern fishing has left few records (textual, archaeological, visual, oral) compared to food production on land. Fishers of all kinds resist visibility in various sources (often intentionally), and move, as their catch do, with the waves in unexpected ways. Fishing is therefore difficult to study through the lens of the state or nation, and requires careful attention to localized and everchanging ecological and climatological conditions. Furthermore, premodern fisheries history cuts across disciplinary lines. Historians have been far less interested in the topic than archaeologists and anthropologists, especially outside of the early modern Atlantic context. With this in mind, the reader will notice important imbalances within the field which continue to limit and shape understanding of premodern fisheries. The first is the overwhelming focus on European and North Atlantic fishing. Most fisheries scholars have worked within Europe on Europe, or on the colonial fisheries in the northwest Atlantic, in what is today Canada and New England. The history of fishing work in East or South Asia, or Africa, or the Indigenous Americas has received far less attention. The second imbalance is the focus on the early modern era, and in particular the seventeenth to the eighteenth centuries. Although a cluster of medieval Europeanists has refined our understanding of medieval fish consumption, the balance of work continues to be done on later eras. The third is a focus on a few high-profile species: cod and herring above all, followed by sardines, salmon, and tuna. Such pelagic fish certainly constituted the bulk of preserved food produced by Europeans in the premodern Atlantic, but we know far less about other marine species. Only recently has fishing been treated seriously as an environmental subject by historians. Until the period from 2000 to 2024 historical research on fishing emphasized economic, political, and social dimensions. Now scholars are finally examining the ecological, climatological, biological, cultural, and metaphysical ramifications of fishing across time and space. This reflects the broader rise of environmental history as a field, and the selection of works below is meant to highlight these more environmental approaches.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780197768709-0006","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T04:07:30Z","timestamp":1750306050000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Environmental History of Premodern Fisheries"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Jack","family":"Bouchard","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]},"container-title":["Environmental History"],"original-title":["Environmental History of Premodern Fisheries"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,19]],"date-time":"2025-06-19T04:07:30Z","timestamp":1750306050000},"score":8.46861,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780197768709\/obo-9780197768709-0006.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]},"ISBN":["9780197768709"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780197768709-0006","published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,20]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,10]],"date-time":"2024-05-10T02:57:37Z","timestamp":1715309857240},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199791279","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The sixty-three years between the accession of Catherine II and the death of Alexander I mark a key moment in Russian history. The Russian state enjoyed a long streak of successful wars and territorial acquisitions and fully established itself as a great European power. The reigns of Catherine II and Alexander I saw Russian conquest and annexation of Poland, Finland, Bessarabia, Moldavia, Georgia, and territories on both sides of the Great Caucasian Gorge. Russia also successfully projected its power well beyond its traditional boundary. In 1799, the Russian troops appeared for the first time on the plains of Italy and the mountain valleys of Switzerland while, in 1814, they marched triumphantly along the Champs-\u00c9lys\u00e9es in Paris. Warfare was an almost constant feature of this period as Russia fought three wars against the Ottoman Turks (1768\u20131774, 1787\u20131792, 1806\u20131812), two wars against Sweden (1788\u20131790, 1808\u20131809), four campaigns against the Poles (1768\u20131772, 1793\u20131795), five campaigns against France (1799\u20131800, 1805\u20131814), and one prolonged conflict with Iran (1804\u20131813). The strain of the Napoleonic Wars, when Russia was almost continually at war between 1805 and 1815, surpassed the impact of all other conflicts that had preceded them.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199791279-0083","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,7,16]],"date-time":"2014-07-16T11:57:39Z","timestamp":1405511859000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Russian Military History, 1762-1825"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Alexander","family":"Mikaberidze","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,5,29]]},"container-title":["Military History"],"original-title":["Russian Military History, 1762-1825"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:27:57Z","timestamp":1632425277000},"score":8.4675255,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199791279\/obo-9780199791279-0083.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,5,29]]},"ISBN":["9780199791279"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199791279-0083","published":{"date-parts":[[2014,5,29]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,5]],"date-time":"2022-04-05T00:51:21Z","timestamp":1649119881309},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"University of Pittsburgh Press","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctt5vkdp6.12","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,9,7]],"date-time":"2017-09-07T19:58:04Z","timestamp":1504814284000},"page":"138-147","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["On the History of the History of Peoples Without History"],"prefix":"10.2307","member":"1121","container-title":["Without History"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,9]],"date-time":"2018-05-09T12:06:15Z","timestamp":1525867575000},"score":8.46748,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/10.2307\/j.ctt5vkdp6.12"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[null]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/j.ctt5vkdp6.12"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,3]],"date-time":"2022-08-03T04:47:45Z","timestamp":1659502065599},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,22]]},"abstract":"
This chapter begins with the observation that a number of literary critics in this period express the hope that a new form of \u2018cultural history\u2019 would provide the basis for an evaluative assessment of the direction of social change. They look to those trained as critics, not to historians, for such an approach, one that tries to identify the \u2018quality of living\u2019 in evidence in various periods. The chapter shows how such work played an important part in a wider public\u2019s understanding of history in the years between the 1940s and the 1970s, with the