Although criminal law in other legal systems tends to be organized according to the nature of crimes, criminal offenses under classical Islamic law are categorized according to the nature and sources of punishments. Islamic criminal offenses are divided into three categories: (1) offenses and punishments fixed in the Qur\u02bean or Sunna (hudud); (2) offenses against the person, including intentional injury and homicide, which are considered matters to be settled between the offender and victim, and for which remedies include retaliation (qisas) and financial compensation (diya); and (3) Offenses not fixed in the Qur\u02bean or Sunna, for which punishments are discretionary (ta\u02bfzir). Islamic criminal law is not applied uniformly in all locations\u2014interpretations of Sharia and hudud punishments in countries such as Indonesia and Saudi Arabia, for example, can be very different. In Pakistan, hudud offenses have been incorporated into state legislation. In recent years, Islamic criminal law has been the subject of commentary and critique by scholars and activists within the international human rights community.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195390155-0035","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,5,27]],"date-time":"2010-05-27T19:37:44Z","timestamp":1274989064000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Islamic Criminal Law"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Christie S.","family":"Warren","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,12,14]]},"container-title":["Islamic Studies"],"original-title":["Islamic Criminal Law"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:28:03Z","timestamp":1632425283000},"score":20.119114,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195390155\/obo-9780195390155-0035.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2009,12,14]]},"ISBN":["9780195390155"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195390155-0035","published":{"date-parts":[[2009,12,14]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:36:56Z","timestamp":1715294216497},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195390155","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Studies of gender in Islamic law combine methodologies from two distinct fields of study: Islamic law, and women and gender. While Western scholarly study of Islamic law began in earnest during the era of Orientalist scholarship (late 19th through mid-20th centuries), focusing largely on questions of origins and mechanics, particularly outlining rules and regulations and the rights and duties of various groups of people, the application of women and gender methodologies to Islamic law dates to the 1980s, with substantial work beginning in the 1990s. Since then, the field has expanded to include case studies of different times, places, and variations between law schools (madhhabs), comparative analyses, and attention to contemporary reform efforts, particularly in family law.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195390155-0264","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,26]],"date-time":"2019-04-26T07:34:23Z","timestamp":1556264063000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Islamic Law and Gender"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Natana","family":"DeLong-Bas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,24]]},"container-title":["Islamic Studies"],"original-title":["Islamic Law and Gender"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:20:26Z","timestamp":1632424826000},"score":20.08701,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195390155\/obo-9780195390155-0264.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,24]]},"ISBN":["9780195390155"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195390155-0264","published":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,24]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,15]],"date-time":"2024-05-15T07:40:26Z","timestamp":1715758826515},"edition-number":"1","reference-count":411,"publisher":"Oxford University PressNew York","isbn-type":[{"value":"0190064633","type":"print"},{"value":"9780190064631","type":"print"},{"value":"9780190064662","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,12,6]]},"abstract":" The continent of Africa offers a complex and challenging setting for the study of Islamic law. Today, this continent contains some of the most predominantly Muslim states in the world (in North Africa and the Sahara), some where Muslims are a small minority (in eastern and southern Africa), and some where there are substantial populations of both Muslims and Christians (in West Africa, notably in Nigeria). Over the course of history, since the arrival of Islam in Africa in the 7th century, there have been many changes shaping how Islamic law is applied. Islamic law affected not only relations within Muslim communities, but also the relations of Muslims with non-Muslims\u2014Christians and Jews around the Mediterranean, and people following traditional religions south of the Sahara, and in East Africa. Islamic law has provided a basis for conflict and efforts at subjugation of non-Muslims as slaves or concubines, but it has also offered a framework for negotiation, peaceful interaction, and conflict resolution. While the best-known aspect of Islamic law lies in the area of family matters\u2014marriage, divorce, and inheritance\u2014Islamic legists have played an important role in developing fiqh, or jurisprudence based on Islamic principles but adapted to local situations, dealing with such areas as water rights, commercial relations, medical practice, and cultural expression. The application of Islamic law was in many cases restricted by colonial rule from the early 19th century to the mid-20th century. Starting in the 1980s, there have been some dramatic efforts to restore the authority of Islamic courts over a wider domain of law, notably in Sudan, where such efforts led to the breaking up of the country between the predominantly Islamic north, and South Sudan, which has a religiously diverse population. In northern Nigeria, state governments restored a wide application of Islamic law, but pragmatic approaches by traditional leaders have helped preserve stability in much of the country, except in the northeast.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199846733-0042","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,26]],"date-time":"2019-02-26T13:15:53Z","timestamp":1551186953000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Islamic Law"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Allan","family":"Christelow","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,27]]},"container-title":["African Studies"],"original-title":["Islamic Law"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:36:03Z","timestamp":1632425763000},"score":19.742073,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199846733\/obo-9780199846733-0042.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,27]]},"ISBN":["9780199846733"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199846733-0042","published":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,27]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]],"date-time":"2025-12-12T22:08:44Z","timestamp":1765577324138,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Yayasan Cerdas Pedia Indonesia","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nusantara: Journal Law and Islamic Law"],"DOI":"10.65101\/nusantara.v1i1","type":"journal-issue","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]],"date-time":"2025-12-12T22:04:28Z","timestamp":1765577068000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"prefix":"10.65101","volume":"1","member":"54594","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]},"container-title":["Nusantara: Journal Law and Islamic Law"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,12]],"date-time":"2025-12-12T22:04:28Z","timestamp":1765577068000},"score":19.700922,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/jurnal.cerdaspedia.com\/index.php\/nusantara\/issue\/view\/4"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]},"references-count":0,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.65101\/nusantara.v1i1","ISSN":["3110-8415"],"issn-type":[{"value":"3110-8415","type":"electronic"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,4]],"date-time":"2023-11-04T00:42:57Z","timestamp":1699058577410},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Lockwood Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9781957454023","type":"electronic"},{"value":"9781957454795","type":"print"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]]},"DOI":"10.2307\/jj.8275990.16","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,3]],"date-time":"2023-11-03T20:23:20Z","timestamp":1699043000000},"page":"273-290","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["ADOPTION IN ISLAMIC LAW"],"prefix":"10.2307","author":[{"given":"Mohammad","family":"Fadel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"1121","container-title":["Islamic Jurisprudence, Islamic Law, and Modernity"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,3]],"date-time":"2023-11-03T20:23:51Z","timestamp":1699043031000},"score":19.596802,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/10.2307\/jj.8275990.16"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]]},"ISBN":["9781957454023","9781957454795"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/jj.8275990.16","published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T13:04:24Z","timestamp":1767704664374,"version":"3.48.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Yayasan Cerdas Pedia Indonesia","issue":"2","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Nusantara: Journal Law and Islamic Law"],"DOI":"10.65101\/nusantara.v1i2","type":"journal-issue","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,21]],"date-time":"2025-12-21T07:16:02Z","timestamp":1766301362000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"prefix":"10.65101","volume":"1","member":"54594","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,21]]},"container-title":["Nusantara: Journal of Law and Islamic Law"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,6]],"date-time":"2026-01-06T12:21:29Z","timestamp":1767702089000},"score":19.556217,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/jurnal.cerdaspedia.com\/index.php\/nusantara\/issue\/view\/29"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,21]]},"references-count":0,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,21]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.65101\/nusantara.v1i2","ISSN":["3110-8415"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"3110-8415"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,21]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,4]],"date-time":"2023-11-04T00:41:32Z","timestamp":1699058492436},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Lockwood Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9781957454023","type":"electronic"},{"value":"9781957454795","type":"print"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]]},"DOI":"10.2307\/jj.8275990.15","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,3]],"date-time":"2023-11-03T20:23:20Z","timestamp":1699043000000},"page":"237-272","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["POLITICAL LIBERALISM, ISLAMIC FAMILY LAW, AND FAMILY LAW PLURALISM"],"prefix":"10.2307","author":[{"given":"Mohammad H.","family":"Fadel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"1121","container-title":["Islamic Jurisprudence, Islamic Law, and Modernity"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,3]],"date-time":"2023-11-03T20:23:50Z","timestamp":1699043030000},"score":19.53013,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.jstor.org\/stable\/10.2307\/jj.8275990.15"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]]},"ISBN":["9781957454023","9781957454795"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/jj.8275990.15","published":{"date-parts":[[2023,8,1]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T16:51:09Z","timestamp":1768755069243,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"IAIN Bukittinggi","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"DOI":"10.30983\/jilaw","type":"journal","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T00:57:01Z","timestamp":1768697821000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Journal of Islamic Law and Wisdom"],"prefix":"10.30983","member":"16100","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,18]],"date-time":"2026-01-18T00:57:02Z","timestamp":1768697822000},"score":19.455761,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/ejournal.uinbukittinggi.ac.id\/index.php\/jilaw"}},"short-title":["J. Islamic Law Wis."],"issued":{"date-parts":[[null]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.30983\/jilaw","ISSN":["3109-5259"],"issn-type":[{"value":"3109-5259","type":"electronic"}]},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,6]],"date-time":"2024-05-06T10:13:09Z","timestamp":1714990389592},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199679010","type":"print"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,1]]},"abstract":" Whereas Islamic law and Islamic theology are usually discussed separately, this article examines the relationship between the two in Islamic Studies scholarship. After defining the terms \u201claw\u201d and \u201ctheology,\u201d this article offers three historiographical approaches to the subject, namely: \u201cOrientalist,\u201d \u201cRevisionist,\u201d and \u201cPragmatist\u201d, each reflecting assumptions about the function of Islamic law in Muslim communities. Orientalists are skeptical of Islamic religious texts, and argue that Islamic law and theology are unconnected, static sciences that have little to offer modern Muslims. Revisionists re-read Islamic sources to suggest that Islamic law was once a theological enterprise that devolved into legalism, but that it can be revived by returning to theology. Pragmatists, using subaltern and feminist lenses, argue that Islamic law and theology are interconnected and evolving sciences that perpetually animate Muslim discourse. The article concludes by discussing the political import of this topic, and suggesting avenues for further research.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780199679010.013.58","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,10]],"date-time":"2015-09-10T18:15:56Z","timestamp":1441908956000},"page":"104-132","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Islamic Law and Theology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Rumee","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,10]]},"container-title":["The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law"],"original-title":["Islamic Law and Theology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]],"date-time":"2022-08-02T17:19:25Z","timestamp":1659460765000},"score":19.235239,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/edited-volume\/28121\/chapter\/212279772"}},"editor":[{"given":"Anver M.","family":"Emon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Rumee","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,10]]},"ISBN":["9780199679010"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780199679010.013.58","published":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,10]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,6]],"date-time":"2024-06-06T18:39:48Z","timestamp":1717699188289},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199679010","type":"print"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,1]]},"abstract":" This article examines the category of gender as it is employed in the study of Islamic law. It first considers how gender scholars turned to legal practice and challenged orientalist narratives using a social historical approach. It then analyses feminist critique of legal discourse, focusing on scholarship that addresses the development of pre-modern substantive law (fiqh) and legal theory, as well as the gendered construction of legal subjecthood. It also discusses three different modes of feminist engagements with Islamic law that developed from the 1990s onwards. The first approach develops a narrative about the patriarchal nature of Islamic law and the increasing decline of women\u2019s rights throughout Islamic history. The second approach takes a constructive approach to Islamic law and the third approach interrogates the foundational assumptions and internal logic of substantive law.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780199679010.013.68","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,5]],"date-time":"2018-04-05T14:36:13Z","timestamp":1522938973000},"page":"74-102","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Islamic Law and Gender"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Saadia","family":"Yacoob","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,5]]},"container-title":["The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law"],"original-title":["Islamic Law and Gender"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]],"date-time":"2022-08-02T17:19:24Z","timestamp":1659460764000},"score":19.22851,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/edited-volume\/28121\/chapter\/212278339"}},"editor":[{"given":"Anver M.","family":"Emon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Rumee","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,5]]},"ISBN":["9780199679010"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780199679010.013.68","published":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,5]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]],"date-time":"2022-08-02T23:43:48Z","timestamp":1659483828348},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,18]]},"DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199641444.003.0021","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,1,25]],"date-time":"2013-01-25T09:51:01Z","timestamp":1359107461000},"page":"364-370","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Commentary: Religious Minorities and Islamic Law"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Richard","family":"Goldstone","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","container-title":["Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]],"date-time":"2022-08-02T23:24:09Z","timestamp":1659482649000},"score":19.110699,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/book\/8003\/chapter\/162568219"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,18]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199641444.003.0021","published":{"date-parts":[[2012,10,18]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,7]],"date-time":"2025-03-07T00:52:08Z","timestamp":1741308728656,"version":"3.38.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Walter de Gruyter GmbH","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Islam. Law Soc."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,23]]},"abstract":" The Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) is the second biggest international organization after the United Nations. It comprises fifty-seven full member states, representing one-quarter of the global population, and it is the only international organization whose unifying feature is its religious and Islamic identity. As such, it represents an anomaly in international relations and largely explains why the organization has not figured in the majority of mainstream publications on international law until relatively recently. Established in the wake of universal Muslim outrage following the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in 1969, the OIC has provided a political platform for predominantly Muslim states to promote \u201cIslamic solidarity.\u201d But it has also provided a forum to develop consensual positions on many international matters\u2014from international trade and the development of Islamic banking and halal food networks to peace and security, hate speech, and the protection of Muslim minorities. The OIC now forms a considerable bloc of countries at the UN and, with the presence of both Russia and China as observers, it has capacity to wield considerable influence on the world stage and to co-sponsor common agendas. For much of its existence, however, the OIC has been a peripheral grouping and a marginal player. Although it has forty-eight subsidiary and specialized organs, the organization itself is often dismissed as a talking shop and is without any enforcement legal machinery. No committee is endowed with powers to mirror the UN\u2019s Security Council nor has the OIC established any legal body to issue binding legal rulings on member states. The International Islamic Court of Justice, the intended Islamic World Court, seated in Jerusalem, has never operated and even its statute is yet to be ratified by the required two-thirds of OIC members. In spite of its known weaknesses and historical failures, under the leadership of its current and previous secretary-general, the OIC has sprung to life. Since arming itself with a new \u201cfit for purpose\u201d Charter in 2008, the OIC has shown a greater willingness to engage in key areas of international law, including humanitarian law, peace-making, human rights, international terrorism, and, more recently, environmental protection and climate change. If concerns were formerly expressed at the OIC\u2019s apparent ambivalence toward international law, the recent case brought against the government of Myanmar for committing genocide against the Rohingyas by the Gambia in the International Court of Justice (ICJ), with the full backing of the OIC, and the ICJ order in January 2020 against Myanmar for preliminary relief provides evidence of increasing engagement with international law and of success when doing so.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199796953-0232","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,25]],"date-time":"2021-10-25T14:17:13Z","timestamp":1635171433000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["International Law and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]]},"container-title":["International Law"],"original-title":["International Law and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,25]],"date-time":"2021-10-25T14:17:14Z","timestamp":1635171434000},"score":19.073631,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199796953\/obo-9780199796953-0232.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]]},"ISBN":["9780199796953"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199796953-0232","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,27]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,9]],"date-time":"2024-09-09T21:35:54Z","timestamp":1725917754401},"edition-number":"1","reference-count":1,"publisher":"Routledge","isbn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"9781315092515"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,5]]},"DOI":"10.4324\/9781315092515-13","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,17]],"date-time":"2018-11-17T09:40:12Z","timestamp":1542447612000},"page":"243-267","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Protection of Diplomats Under Islamic Law"],"prefix":"10.4324","author":[{"given":"M. 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