The decorative and pictorial properties of dress and furnishing textiles, and their power to express group identity, fashion, wealth, status, or piety, were recognized even before the medieval period. As sewing techniques and weaving technology developed, so too more sophisticated expressions became possible. These were often costly in man\/woman hours and in materials\u2014whether dyes; imported threads and fabrics; or gold, silver, pearls, and other gems\u2014and so took their place along with painting, sculpture, and fine metalwork as an important medium of expression of the art movements of the time, dominated by the needs of major ecclesiastic and royal\/aristocratic institutions and figures. The splendid textiles for which the medieval period is famous were not produced by homeworking amateurs. Most rich textiles for dress, pageantry, or soft furnishing (and most of their cheaper imitations) were made by professionals, and both elaborate patterns and figurative scenes must have been drawn initially by artists or copied from their works. There is evidence both of embroidery professionals and the involvement in design for embroidery by a scribe and painter in England from as early as the Anglo-Saxon period. The ability of both weave and embroidery to use subtle changes of color to emulate modeling and light and shade\u2014and even to a limited degree, to create actual surface modeling\u2014were, not surprisingly, exploited alongside the development of more naturalistic styles in painting and sculpture. In the medieval period as a whole, textiles were as highly regarded as any other artistic medium, not only as decoration but also for their ability to convey both royal symbolism (the grave furnishings from Burgos, Spain; the Regalia of the Holy Roman Empire) and ecclesiastical iconography (individual vestments) as well as major secular narrative. Indeed, the Bayeux Tapestry is the largest surviving non-architectural artwork of the Middle Ages. At times, as in the flourishing of opus anglicanum embroidery, textile art was one of the most visible expressions of art styles of the day. Elaborate textiles are often depicted in artworks in other media, especially manuscript illumination, in the form of dress and soft furnishings. As such they may indicate status and are sometimes, especially the furnishings, decorated with heraldic motifs to exhibit royal or family importance.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199920105-0130","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,25]],"date-time":"2018-10-25T08:43:48Z","timestamp":1540457028000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Medieval Textiles"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,25]]},"container-title":["Art History"],"original-title":["Medieval Textiles"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,5,4]],"date-time":"2022-05-04T11:37:11Z","timestamp":1651664231000},"score":19.528156,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199920105\/obo-9780199920105-0130.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,25]]},"ISBN":["9780199920105"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199920105-0130","published":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,25]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]],"date-time":"2023-09-12T09:49:10Z","timestamp":1694512150983},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Bloomsbury Academic","isbn-type":[{"value":"9781472599414","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"DOI":"10.5040\/9781472599414.ch-004","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,26]],"date-time":"2015-02-26T18:48:46Z","timestamp":1424976526000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Sources of Medieval History"],"prefix":"10.5040","member":"2984","container-title":["An Introduction to Medieval History"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,11]],"date-time":"2023-09-11T22:23:17Z","timestamp":1694470997000},"score":19.398916,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.bloomsburycollections.com\/monograph-detail?docid=b-9781472599414&tocid=b-9781472599414-0076"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[null]]},"ISBN":["9781472599414"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5040\/9781472599414.ch-004"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,9]],"date-time":"2024-05-09T22:26:56Z","timestamp":1715293616156},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195396584","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The study of medieval economic history has a rich pedigree and has led to major, wide-ranging debates about the nature and causes of economic change. Many of the books and articles listed in this article consider the transformation of the medieval economy, often on a broad chronological canvas, from the end of the ancient world to the creation of notable feudal institutions and thence to the emergence of the Early Modern world and protocapitalist organizations. A number of renowned scholars from the early to mid-20th century left their mark on this subject, including Henri Pirenne (b.\u00a01862\u2013d.\u00a01935), Marc Bloch (b.\u00a01886\u2013d.\u00a01944), Michael Moissey Postan (b.\u00a01898\u2013d.\u00a01981), and Georges Duby (b.\u00a01919\u2013d.\u00a01996), and they greatly influenced succeeding generations of historians. In addition, the debates of medieval economic history have often been shaped by numerous theories and approaches founded in the disciplines of economics, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, and geography. However, the strength of the subject still resides in rigorous analysis of the archival evidence. Many scholars have trawled through this material to produce important detailed, empirical case studies, based on specific localities or regions; a number of these are highlighted in this bibliography and are frequently based on English manors, villages, and towns due to the wealth of documentation that survives for that country. Much work concentrates on agricultural structures, demographic trends, and commercial growth. Some events stand out as significant for structural economic change, not least the dramatic intervention of the Black Death in the mid-14th century, but also wars, famines, and the discovery of new international trade routes. However, most economic historians also recognize that their subject is about understanding the everyday lives and material circumstances of ordinary people and their households. Medieval economic history concerns not only the elite, seigneurial estates, long-distance trade, wealthy merchants, and financial institutions but also peasant agriculture, living standards, technology, local trade, urban economies, and social conflict. This bibliography mostly concentrates on medieval Europe, 400\u20131500, but in the last section suggestions for readings on a more global scale are given.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195396584-0092","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,6,12]],"date-time":"2013-06-12T17:01:13Z","timestamp":1371056473000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Economic History"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"James","family":"Davis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,6,25]]},"container-title":["Medieval Studies"],"original-title":["Economic History"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:30:17Z","timestamp":1632425417000},"score":19.262714,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780195396584\/obo-9780195396584-0092.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,6,25]]},"ISBN":["9780195396584"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195396584-0092","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,6,25]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,12]],"date-time":"2023-09-12T09:49:11Z","timestamp":1694512151316},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Bloomsbury Academic","isbn-type":[{"value":"9781472599414","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"DOI":"10.5040\/9781472599414.ch-003","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,2,26]],"date-time":"2015-02-26T18:48:46Z","timestamp":1424976526000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Some General Themes in Medieval History"],"prefix":"10.5040","member":"2984","container-title":["An Introduction to Medieval History"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,11]],"date-time":"2023-09-11T22:23:16Z","timestamp":1694470996000},"score":19.204403,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.bloomsburycollections.com\/monograph-detail?docid=b-9781472599414&tocid=b-9781472599414-0068"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[null]]},"ISBN":["9781472599414"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5040\/9781472599414.ch-003"},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,3]],"date-time":"2022-04-03T03:27:15Z","timestamp":1648956435392},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"The Korean Society for Western Medieval History","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"DOI":"10.21591\/jwmh.","type":"journal","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,8]],"date-time":"2020-05-08T00:40:19Z","timestamp":1588898419000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Journal of Western Medieval History"],"prefix":"10.21591","member":"9040","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,8]],"date-time":"2020-05-08T00:40:19Z","timestamp":1588898419000},"score":19.15408,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"http:\/\/www.medsociety.or.kr"}},"short-title":["Journal of Western Medieval History"],"issued":{"date-parts":[[null]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.21591\/jwmh.","ISSN":["1229-4454"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1229-4454","type":"print"}]},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,19]],"date-time":"2024-04-19T01:14:59Z","timestamp":1713489299481},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780195396584","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Between 644 and 750 ce, the Umayyad branch of the Prophet Muhammad\u2019s tribe of Quraysh presided over the expansion of the first Islamic empire. Control over the former lands of Rome and Iran in Egypt and the Fertile Crescent was consolidated, while new conquests were made in North Africa, the Mediterranean, the Caucasus, Iran, and Central and South Asia. The first Umayyad leader (and third leader after the Prophet), \u02bfUthman, ruled from Medina, in West Arabia, as his predecessors had done. \u02bfUthman\u2019s killing in 656 triggered widespread conflict within the new elite, from which his second cousin, Mu\u02bfawiya, emerged victorious. Mu\u02bfawiya ruled from Syria, where he had close ties with the tribes of the Syrian Desert. After Mu\u02bfawiya\u2019s death in 680, there was a second episode of widespread violence. It ended in c. 692, when a third branch of the Umayyad clan\u2014\u02bfUthman\u2019s first cousin, Marwan, and his descendants\u2014took power, retaining Syria as their capital but seeking greater control over other territories. Under the Marwanid caliph \u02bfAbd al-Malik (r.\u00a0685\u2013705) and his successors, the empire\u2019s resources supported the public articulation of a distinctive claim to rule in the name of Islam, manifested in monuments such as the Dome of the Rock and on coins bearing only Arabic text in place of images. In 750, tensions in Iraq and in the frontier armies, and conflict within the Marwanid family and their army, brought about the end of Umayyad rule everywhere except al-Andalus. (This medieval Umayyad \u201csuccessor state,\u201d in what is now Spain and Portugal, is not addressed in this bibliography.) The Umayyads were supplanted as imperial monarchs by their Abbasid cousins, who ruled the empire from Iraq. Since the revisionist scholarship of the 1970s and 1980s, source-critical, literary-critical, and prosopographical approaches have been taken to the (mostly 9th- and 10th-century) literary sources for the Umayyad era. Meanwhile, archaeology and numismatic, epigraphic, and other documentary sources have been crucial to understanding not only the empire\u2019s administration but also social and economic history. Earliest Islam and Islamic history have also been recontextualized within the frameworks of Late Antiquity and world history. Despite the problematic evidence, the era of the Marwanid Umayyads stands out as the period when a recognizably \u201cIslamic\u201d identity becomes visible across the various material evidence and as the earliest period to which some of the earliest textual elements of the later Arabic-Islamic tradition can be traced.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780195396584-0333","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,18]],"date-time":"2024-04-18T03:32:50Z","timestamp":1713411170000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Umayyad History"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Andrew","family":"Marsham","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,19]]},"container-title":["Medieval Studies"],"original-title":["Umayyad History"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,18]],"date-time":"2024-04-18T03:32:50Z","timestamp":1713411170000},"score":19.129154,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780195396584\/obo-9780195396584-0333.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,19]]},"ISBN":["9780195396584"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780195396584-0333","published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,19]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,10]],"date-time":"2024-05-10T02:58:50Z","timestamp":1715309930750},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199791279","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The primary problem of this subject is when to start. It cannot be denied that the origins of France lie in the people called the Franks, whose dominion had, since the sixth century, covered much of what is now France and western Germany. This vast Frankland was not often a political unity, because Merovingian kings divided it amongst their sons, often resulting in eastern (Austrasian) and western (Neustrian) kingdoms with each commonly having a share of Aquitaine. But historians are convinced that the Franks, to an unusual degree, had a sense of unity. In 800, Charlemagne, after a career of conquest, welded all Frankland into an empire whose power extended over many of the other peoples of Europe. But in the 840s that empire became divided under his grandchildren, and its western component, under Charles the Bald, bears a considerable resemblance to what we know as France. But it was no natural unity: there was no single language, the lands south of the Loire had a different agriculture and orientations toward Spain or the Mediterranean, or both. By contrast, Rheims and the northeast were subject to the pull of the German Empire, and many of the borderlands like Flanders and Hainaut would be vassals of the emperors and of the French king. Normandy, whose border was only a hundred miles from Paris, would for long form part of an Anglo-Norman realm after 1066. So when and why did the western part emerge as a distinct political unity whose military history can be recounted? Historians have differed, and classic works like Flach 1886\u20131917 and Lot 1948 (see General Histories of France) tended to see France as an inevitable evolution. In fact, almost all scholars have seen the origins of France in the period after Charlemagne and arising from dynastic quarrels. To fix upon a starting point, it is necessary to look at general histories and to make a judgment as to when we can start the history of France. In this case, the date of 885 has been selected.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199791279-0246","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]],"date-time":"2024-02-19T13:04:15Z","timestamp":1708347855000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Medieval French Warfare"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"John","family":"France","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,20]]},"container-title":["Military History"],"original-title":["Medieval French Warfare"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,19]],"date-time":"2024-02-19T13:04:16Z","timestamp":1708347856000},"score":18.979387,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199791279\/obo-9780199791279-0246.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,20]]},"ISBN":["9780199791279"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199791279-0246","published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,20]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,31]],"date-time":"2022-03-31T12:00:03Z","timestamp":1648728003394},"edition-number":"1","reference-count":0,"publisher":"Boydell and Brewer Limited","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,21]],"date-time":"2019-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1566345600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":614,"URL":"https:\/\/www.cambridge.org\/core\/terms"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,15]]},"DOI":"10.1017\/9781787441675.011","type":"other","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,23]],"date-time":"2019-08-23T10:07:27Z","timestamp":1566554847000},"page":"229-234","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Journal of Medieval Military History"],"prefix":"10.1017","member":"56","container-title":["Journal of Medieval Military 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Iberia\u2019s medieval history has traditionally been understood in relation to a series of key events: 711\u2013714, when Muslim forces from North Africa began their conquest of most of the Iberian Peninsula; 1031, when the Cordoban caliphate finally collapsed, and 1085, when Alfonso VI captured Islamic Toledo (Tulaytula), marking a significant shift in the balance of power in the peninsula; 1128\u20131179, when the kingdom of Portugal was founded and officially recognized; 1282, when Peter III of Aragon was crowned king of Sicily, cementing the political and mercantile power of Aragon-Catalonia in the Mediterranean; 1492, when Columbus first landed in the Americas, when Jews were expelled from Spain (and from Portugal in 1496), and when Ferdinand and Isabella of Aragon and Castile captured Nasrid Granada, Iberia\u2019s last Islamic polity; and 1497\u20131499, when Vasco da Gama made his first sea voyage to India. In terms of its arts, however, Iberia\u2019s medieval period may be pushed back to the 6th century, to the earliest Visigothic metalwork and architecture, and moved forward well into the 16th century, when gothic traditions mingled with Italianate motifs in Lisbon, Salamanca, and Palma, while Nasrid marquetry techniques (taracea) continued to flourish in Andalucia. Political, linguistic, and cultural borders shifted significantly in this period, and they continue to condition modern art-historical scholarship, whether divisions among Jewish, Islamic, and Christian\/ \u201cWestern\u201d art histories or the intense regionalism \u2013 reinforced by modern political and institutional structures\u2014that has atomized art-historical studies on medieval Iberia. Insofar as the scholarship allows\u2014and partly to complement it\u2014this article thus deliberately resists traditional classifications by geography, confession, period, and medium. More focused bibliographies can be found in the Oxford Bibliographies in Art History articles, \u201cJewish Art, Medieval to Early Modern\u201d and \u201cIslamic Art and Architecture in North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula\u201d; and Oxford Bibliographies in Renaissance and Reformation article \u201cSpanish Art.\u201d This article, therefore, focuses broadly on resources rather than specific studies, with a preference for sources in English, when available.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199920105-0140","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,25]],"date-time":"2019-09-25T07:50:44Z","timestamp":1569397844000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Art of Medieval Iberia"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Tom","family":"Nickson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,25]]},"container-title":["Art History"],"original-title":["Art of Medieval Iberia"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:31:20Z","timestamp":1632425480000},"score":18.48224,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199920105\/obo-9780199920105-0140.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,25]]},"ISBN":["9780199920105"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199920105-0140","published":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,25]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T13:48:25Z","timestamp":1773841705444,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,1]]},"DOI":"10.1093\/ww\/9780199540884.013.u25125","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,30]],"date-time":"2017-11-30T09:53:57Z","timestamp":1512035637000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Luscombe, Prof. David Edward, (born 22 July 1938), Professor of Medieval History, 1972\u201395, Leverhulme Personal Research Professor of Medieval History, 1995\u20132000, Research Professor of Medieval History, 2000\u201303, now Emeritus, University of Sheffield"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","container-title":["Who's Who"],"original-title":["Luscombe, Prof. David Edward, (born 22 July 1938), Professor of Medieval History, 1972\u201395, Leverhulme Personal Research Professor of Medieval History, 1995\u20132000, Research Professor of Medieval History, 2000\u201303, now Emeritus, University of Sheffield"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,18]],"date-time":"2026-03-18T09:45:12Z","timestamp":1773827112000},"score":18.453201,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.ukwhoswho.com\/view\/10.1093\/ww\/9780199540884.001.0001\/ww-9780199540884-e-25125"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,1]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/ww\/9780199540884.013.u25125","published":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,1]]}}],"items-per-page":20,"query":{"start-index":0,"search-terms":"Medieval+history"}}}