Agricultural meteorology (also referred to as agrometeorology) is the study of the effects of weather on agriculture, while agricultural climatology (alternatively, agroclimatology) is concerned with the effects of climate on agriculture. These fields of study share many of the same goals, philosophies, approaches, and methods. As a consequence, disciplinary boundaries are indistinct, and the terms \u201cagricultural meteorology\u201d and \u201cagrometeorology\u201d are increasingly used interchangeably with \u201cagricultural climatology\u201d and \u201cagroclimatology.\u201d Agricultural meteorology\/climatology is oftentimes considered a bridge between the physical and biological sciences, although this interdisciplinarity increasingly includes the social sciences. While most research has focused on the production of food staples (e.g., maize, rice, and wheat), agricultural meteorologists and climatologists also address the influence of weather and climate on specialty crops, animal husbandry, commercial forestry, and aquaculture. Management of agricultural pests and diseases is another major focus. Atmospheric and biophysical processes operating at a wide range of temporal and spatial scales\u2014from seconds to centuries and from an individual leaf to a global agricultural system\u2014are explored. Agricultural meteorologists and climatologists promote the sustainable management of agricultural resources and strive to improve the livelihoods of agricultural stakeholders. Both basic and applied research are conducted to further these goals, and agricultural meteorologists and climatologists are often involved in the development, delivery, and evaluation of agricultural services. These services range from decision support tools for daily agricultural operations to services focused on seasonal or longer-term planning. Observations of the atmosphere-plant-soil environment are central to research and applications in agricultural meteorology\/climatology, as are empirical and process-based models. Agriculture is highly vulnerable to climate variability and change, and potential adaptation strategies are widely investigated. Mitigation is also a concern as many agriculture activities emit greenhouse gases or contribute to land cover change. As other entries in Oxford Bibliographies address the theoretical aspects of atmosphere-plant-soil interactions (see \u201cLand-Atmosphere Interactions\u201d by Geoffrey M. Henebry, Nathan J. Moore, and Jiquan Chen), this entry primarily focuses on the applications-based literature in agricultural meteorology\/climatology. The intent is to draw on both classic and recent literature to illustrate the nature of the research questions and applications of concern to agricultural meteorologists and climatologists, the approaches they use to address these questions and concerns, and the types of agricultural services they provide.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0235","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,27]],"date-time":"2021-07-27T12:21:48Z","timestamp":1627388508000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Agricultural Meteorology\/Climatology"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,28]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Agricultural Meteorology\/Climatology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:42:09Z","timestamp":1632426129000},"score":28.426617,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0235.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,28]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0235","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,28]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:19:14Z","timestamp":1714731554276},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199874002","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Urban areas tend to form their own weather and climate that significantly relates to effects of buildings, paved surfaces and materials, the water landscape, and emissions of waste heat and pollution into the atmosphere by industry, transportation systems, and human metabolism. A city gives rise to regional and local urban heat islands, altered river flows, changes in precipitation and humidity, elevated pollution levels, and altered airflow within, over, and across the built landscape. A myriad of microenvironments and microclimates exist across a metropolitan region as a result. These differences are important for a number of reasons, among them the fact that populations are increasingly moving to and living in cities, and the fact that there are several impacts of these changes that affect communities, businesses, urban planning, transportation systems, public health, energy and water use, security, and emergency responses. It is well known that cities have altered the atmosphere, producing changes in air temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind flow, sunshine, and pollution levels. A first formal study is Luke Howard\u2019s The Climate of London. Since the 19th century, several developments led to modern-day practices and applications by urban meteorologists and climatologists. These are outlined in a seminal book Urban Climates and include four periods: (a) prior to 1930, pioneering climatographies of selected cities and weather elements, (b) 1930\u20131965, growth of micro- and local climatology, (c) 1965\u20132000, rapid increase in research with links to meteorology and physically based models, and (d) in the 21st century, the maturing of urban meteorology and climatology into a predictive science is occurring. This selective article cites literature on various areas of urban meteorology and climatology. The books, reports, and articles that are listed, with some exceptions, are recent ones. The maturing phase has created an enormous literature from many related disciplines focusing on urban weather and climate. Not every aspect is covered in detail, but books and references will lead to uncovering the vast literature related to this subject. Although it is a selective bibliography, certainly further in-depth searches, it is hoped, can be made by the reader.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0207","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,25]],"date-time":"2019-09-25T07:50:40Z","timestamp":1569397840000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Urban Meteorology and Climatology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Anthony J.","family":"Brazel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,25]]},"container-title":["Geography"],"original-title":["Urban Meteorology and Climatology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:31:33Z","timestamp":1632425493000},"score":26.979828,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199874002\/obo-9780199874002-0207.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,25]]},"ISBN":["9780199874002"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199874002-0207","published":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,25]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,10]],"date-time":"2024-07-10T14:29:55Z","timestamp":1720621795878},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Elsevier BV","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1971,1,1]],"date-time":"1971-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":31536000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/www.elsevier.com\/tdm\/userlicense\/1.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Agricultural Meteorology"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1971,1]]},"DOI":"10.1016\/0002-1571(71)90015-x","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2003,8,6]],"date-time":"2003-08-06T14:00:58Z","timestamp":1060178458000},"page":"125-128","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"special_numbering":"C","title":["World survey of climatology, 2. 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