Computational psychology is concerned with understanding the mind and its various functions and domains through developing detailed, mechanistic, process-based models, namely, computational (in a broad sense) models of representations, mechanisms, and processes. It embodies theories in computer algorithms and programs, which are in turn based on artificial intelligence and computer science. That is, it imputes computational processes onto psychological functions, and thereby it produces runnable computational models. Detailed simulations can then be conducted based on computational models. Empirical disciplines, such as cognitive psychology, social psychology, and developmental psychology, provide empirical data, findings, phenomena, ideas, and other information to computational psychology. Computational psychologists then analyze and abstract them to form coherent theories in computational forms. In turn, these theories impact other disciplines, including those disciplines from which they draw their initial inspirations. Thus, work in computational psychology relies on empirical work from various empirical disciplines, and work in other disciplines in turn is influenced by work from computational psychology. Note that computational models are, mostly, \u201cprocess theories\u201d\u2014that is, they are meant to answer the question of how human performance and behavior comes about; by what psychological mechanisms, processes, representations, and knowledge; and in what ways exactly. In contrast, it is also possible to formulate \u201cproduct theories\u201d that provide a functional account of the phenomena but do not commit to a particular psychological mechanism or process. This article emphasizes the former. Note also that, because of the existence of many different or even conflicting viewpoints, paradigms, and theories, this article can only provide a sparse sampling of perspectives and models (especially with regard to various specific psychological or cognitive domains), not exhaustive or complete in any way. The reader should explore further and make up their own mind about various perspective and models.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0299","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,25]],"date-time":"2022-10-25T13:06:38Z","timestamp":1666703198000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Computational Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Ron","family":"Sun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Computational Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,25]],"date-time":"2022-10-25T13:06:39Z","timestamp":1666703199000},"score":9.785557,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0299.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0299","published":{"date-parts":[[2022,10,27]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,10]],"date-time":"2026-02-10T16:17:37Z","timestamp":1770740257561,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Counseling psychology is a specialty within psychology that focuses on counseling, research, and assessment in which close attention is paid to individual\u2019s assets and psychological strengths. Counseling psychologists have three primary roles: remedial (e.g., working to help correct problems), preventative (e.g., interventions focused on forestalling problems), and developmental (e.g., skills training and psychoeducational approaches). The primary interventions of the specialty tend to be brief and cover a variety of settings (e.g., counseling, training, consultation, outreach). Gelso, et al. 2014, Counseling Psychology (cited under Reference Works), summarizes the enduring central values of counseling psychology, noting it has (1) an emphasis on a person\u2019s strengths and optimal functioning; (2) a focus on the whole person, with particular emphasis on life-span development and vocational growth; (3) a commitment to advocacy and social justice, maintaining an ongoing awareness of the importance of environmental context and culture; (4) a concentration on brief, educational, and preventive counseling interventions; and (5) a dedication to the scientist-practitioner model. While counseling psychology\u2019s abiding interest in vocational guidance began in 1908 with the establishment of a vocations bureau by Frank Parsons, most view the field of counseling psychology as beginning with the role of psychologists (in assessment of military personnel) in the 1940s during World War II. The Division of Counseling and Guidance (Division 17) of the American Psychological Association was formally established in 1946. Division 17 changed its name in 1951 to the Division of Counseling Psychology, and again in 2003 to the Society of Counseling Psychology. The major journals in counseling psychology were founded in 1954 (the Journal of Counseling Psychology, cited under Journals) and 1969 (The Counseling Psychologist, cited under Journals).The field\u2019s history can also be marked by its major conferences. The first conference for counseling psychology was held in 1951 at Northwestern University. It was at this conference that the scientist-practitioner model of training was formally endorsed. The field has held a major conference approximately every dozen years since then (1964, Greyston Conference; 1973, Vail Conference; 1987, Georgia Conference; 2001, Houston Conference). At each conference, the field strengthened its identity and debated issues of importance to the field, such as social justice initiatives and multicultural competencies. In 1999, Division 17 was one of the founding divisions (along with divisions 35, 44, and 45) of the National Multicultural Conference and Summit (NMCS). In 2008 the Society of Counseling Psychology held its first international conference in Chicago, acknowledging the global nature of counseling psychology. In fact, there has been a growing emphasis in the field on ensuring transnational and global perspectives in science and practice (see Gerstein, et al. 2009, cited under Reference Works).<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0146","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,20]],"date-time":"2014-02-20T16:36:27Z","timestamp":1392914187000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Counseling Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Elizabeth Nutt","family":"Williams","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,13]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Counseling Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:23:09Z","timestamp":1632424989000},"score":9.774896,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0146.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,13]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0146","published":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,13]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T13:37:32Z","timestamp":1762004252210,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"9780199828340"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Phenomenological psychology refers to an approach to psychology that draws on phenomenological, existential, and hermeneutic philosophy. The focus in all such work is on making sense of the meaning structures of the lived experience of a research participant or psychotherapeutic client. That is, in Husserl\u2019s terms\u2014the founder of phenomenological philosophy\u2014we go \u201cback to the things themselves\u201d as they present themselves to consciousness in order to determine the \u201cessence\u201d (eidos) of the phenomenon. There is not one approach to phenomenological psychology, however, with the perspective better being understood as a family of methods and modes of practice. All psychological research and practice within this tradition will have its roots in the thought of Husserl and key concepts therein but will also likely be informed by other philosophical work, such as that of Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty, and Sartre from the existential tradition, or Gadamer and Ricoeur from the hermeneutic tradition. Phenomenological psychology has its origins in European psychiatry with the work of Karl Jaspers in the early 1900s, along with figures including Ludwig Binswanger, Medard Boss, Viktor Frankl, Eugene Minkowski, and Jan Hendrick van den Berg. The primary aim of these thinkers was (a) the rejection of traditional notions of psychopathology, in favor of Husserl\u2019s descriptive method of analyzing psychological experience; and (b) the application of ideas from existential philosophy to therapeutic practice. A variety of modes of psychotherapeutic practice have evolved from this early work including Daseinsanalysis, logotherapy, British School existential analysis, and existential-humanistic psychotherapy. The Utrecht School in The Netherlands has been identified as the location of the first attempt to apply phenomenological philosophy to psychological research. Influenced by the work of the psychologist Adrian van Kaam and the philosopher Henry Koren, Amedeo Giorgi (beginning in the early 1970s) developed a systematic phenomenological psychology methodology at Duquesne University in the United States. Other important early figures working to develop phenomenological psychology at Duquesne include Rolf von Eckartsberg, Constance F. Fischer, and Paul F. Collaizi, with the latter developing his own phenomenological method, which is more hermeneutic than the Giorgi method. Another relatively early major methodological development came about in Canada in the late 1970s with the work of the pedagogical researcher Max van Manen, who drew directly on the Utrecht School to develop a hermeneutic phenomenological methodology. Recent developments include methodologies that draw more extensively on hermeneutics or forms of critical social theory or both, including feminist theory. Some of these developments have proven controversial, with ongoing debates in the field about the boundaries and methods of phenomenological psychology.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0210","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,26]],"date-time":"2018-04-26T08:57:51Z","timestamp":1524733071000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Phenomenological Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Darren","family":"Langdridge","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,26]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Phenomenological Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,9,25]],"date-time":"2023-09-25T07:29:04Z","timestamp":1695626944000},"score":9.767252,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0210.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,26]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0210","published":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:57:47Z","timestamp":1714730267000},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Health psychology is an interdisciplinary subspecialty of psychology dedicated to promoting and maintaining health and preventing and treating illness. Franz Alexander and Helen Flanders Dunbar together established the first formal gathering of individuals interested in studying the influences of the mind on health in the 1920s. This movement within the mainstream medical establishment was coined psychosomatic medicine and grew into the American Psychosomatic Society (APS). The new field of psychosomatic medicine had many supporters, which led to the formation of the first society specifically dedicated to the study of mind and body connections. Another movement within the field of medicine, called behavioral medicine, looks at nonbiological influences on health. The Society of Behavioral Medicine (SBM), a multidisciplinary, nonprofit organization founded in 1978, is dedicated to studying the influences of behavior on health and well-being. Unlike SBM and APS, whose members are overwhelmingly physicians, the American Psychological Association\u2019s Division of Health Psychology (Division 38) is a group specifically for psychologists and came into being in the mid-1970s. Health psychologists pay close attention to the way that thoughts, feelings, behavior, and biological processes all interact with each other to influence health and illness. In many ways health psychology is greater than a subfield within the discipline of psychology, as it is built on theoretical ideas and research findings from many other areas in psychology. For example, many of the ways used to understand why we get stressed and how we cope come from social and personality psychology. The field of health psychology can be divided into three broad natural segments: stress and coping, health behaviors, and issues in health care. The first section of this article introduces General Overviews, Textbooks, and reference works relating to health psychology. Attention is also paid to Journals that publish articles presenting novel methods, as well as controversies. The bibliography\u2019s remaining sections examine different topics in health psychology.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0031","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,2,14]],"date-time":"2012-02-14T18:23:14Z","timestamp":1329243794000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Health Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Regan","family":"Gurung","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,11,29]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Health Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,23]],"date-time":"2023-06-23T04:25:00Z","timestamp":1687494300000},"score":9.736808,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0031.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011,11,29]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0031","published":{"date-parts":[[2011,11,29]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:48Z","timestamp":1714731528466},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Military psychology is a specialized field of applied psychology that defines itself not through its subject content or methodological concerns, rather through its goal of optimally fulfilling the requirements of its end user, the armed forces. It is a distinctive domain where varied sub-disciplines of psychology converge in pursuance of ensuring efficiency, effectiveness, and sustained performance by the armed forces in specific contexts and under exceptional circumstances. It is focused on building, enhancing, and optimizing the human capital. Though psychological principles have always been used by humankind in warfare, military psychology as a modern discipline found expression as recently as the First World War. Remarkably, the relationship between military and psychology has been almost symbiotic, the two growing in tandem and benefitting mutually. While the German military was a pioneer in utilizing the expertise of psychologists in the war effort, using aptitude testing for recruitment into different occupation, during the First World War, utilization of psychological expertise by Britain and France remained limited. After entering the First World War in 1917 the United States effectively utilized psychological knowledge in recruitment, classification, and training. Large-scale use of psychology gave impetus to the growth of psychology and resulted in the establishment of the Division of Psychology in the office of the Surgeon General of the US Army in 1917. Psychology in the military grew exponentially during the years of the Second World War. Psychologists were recruited in various branches of the armed forces, overseeing personnel selection, health care, training, proficiency measurement, and leadership. The American Psychological Association recognized the contributions of psychology to the war effort by including the Division of Military Psychology (Division 19) as a formal sub-division in 1945. The psychologists gained a formal entry in the British civil services during the postwar period. As the world settled into an uneasy peace and a Cold War, military psychology found ever newer avenues. While ensuring person-job fit remained a prime domain, clinical intervention, human factor engineering, leadership, propaganda, and other social processes provided military psychologists with new research opportunities. In the current era of techno-centric warfare, military psychology is finding applications in varied domains of optimizing man-machine interface for enhanced operational efficiency, enhancing cognitive capabilities through artificial intelligence supported decision networks and an improved understanding of personality processes. Also, as the changing nature of warfare necessitates that the nations find alternative ways of securing their interests beyond war, military psychology today stands at a juncture facing not only methodological challenges, but also unprecedented challenges of an ethical nature.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0298","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,28]],"date-time":"2022-11-28T10:18:03Z","timestamp":1669630683000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Military Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Updesh","family":"Kumar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Swati","family":"Mukherjee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,29]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Military Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,28]],"date-time":"2022-11-28T10:18:03Z","timestamp":1669630683000},"score":9.634997,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0298.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,29]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0298","published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,29]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:34Z","timestamp":1714731514619},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
There are two main inferential statistical camps in psychology: frequentists and Bayesians. Within the frequentist camp, most researchers support the null hypothesis significance testing procedure but support is growing for using confidence intervals. The Bayesian camp holds a diversity of views that cannot be covered adequately here. Many researchers advocate power analysis to determine sample sizes. Finally, the a priori procedure is a promising new way to think about inferential statistics.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0264","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,8,4]],"date-time":"2020-08-04T06:07:21Z","timestamp":1596521241000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Inferential Statistics in Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"David","family":"Trafimow","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,29]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Inferential Statistics in Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:35:36Z","timestamp":1632425736000},"score":9.616539,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0264.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,29]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0264","published":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,29]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:38Z","timestamp":1714731518824},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Narrowly defined, data sharing is the practice of making scientific research data available to other researchers. However, the term is often used to include a variety of open-science practices, including making data, methodology (e.g., coding scheme), analytic syntax, and other research materials available to other researchers, as well as the reuse of those resources by others. There are multiple avenues for data sharing, for example data repositories (either subscription-based or free) or direct request to the researcher. Data sharing is a fairly common practice in the life and earth sciences. Excepting a handful of longitudinal projects, psychology lacks this robust historical precedent for sharing data. In fact, in the not-so-distant past, institutional review boards typically required that data be destroyed after a preset period in order to protect participants\u2019 privacy\u2014and some still do. And many researchers still do not take the first step\u2014modifying their informed consent procedures to include explicit consent to share. Although still not frequent, data sharing in psychology is becoming more common. In part, this trend is being driven by the requirements set by publications and funding agencies. For publications, data sharing is intrinsic to transparency and replication of study findings. For funders, data sharing ensures greater return on investment\u2014that expensive and time-consuming primary data collection does not wind up sitting on a dusty shelf, but rather can be reused for secondary data analysis to answer new questions. In psychology as in other fields, technological improvements in storage capacity and computing power have also facilitated data sharing and reuse. While many psychologists are still concerned that data sharing will result in being \u201cscooped\u201d or found in error, there is increasing recognition of the benefits of data sharing. First, data repositories ensure that data are archived, and that the burden of preservation does not fall on the researcher or the researcher\u2019s institution. Sharing also increases the pace of scientific progress, as researchers can build on each other\u2019s work. For example, researchers can learn how other experts approached measurement or coding of a given outcome. In replication studies, inconsistent findings can point to contextual variations in the construct under study, rather than researcher error. And in a field where null findings are often difficult to publish, sharing allows these data to be included in meta-analyses across studies to examine broader impacts. Most importantly, data sharing enhances transparency, a key ingredient in the scientific process.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0272","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,23]],"date-time":"2021-02-23T14:57:13Z","timestamp":1614092233000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Data Sharing in Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Joy","family":"Kennedy","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Data Sharing in Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:38:58Z","timestamp":1632425938000},"score":9.613452,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0272.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0272","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,2,24]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:58:06Z","timestamp":1714730286265},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The title of \u201cGodfather of Personality\u201d may well be ascribed to Gordon Allport, who was the first to make public efforts to promote the \u201cfield of personality\u201d in the 1930s (see Allport and Vernon 1930, cited under Gordon Allport). Personality psychology\u2014located within what many argue is the broadest, most encompassing branch of psychological science\u2014can be defined as the study of the dynamic organization, within the individual, of psychological systems that create the person\u2019s characteristic patterns of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings (see Allport 1961, also cited under Gordon Allport). The field of personality psychology is concerned with both individual differences\u2014that is, the way in which people differ from one another\u2014and intrapersonal functioning, the set of processes taking place within any individual person. The area of personality psychology is often grouped with social psychology in research programs at universities; however, these are quite different approaches to understanding individuals. While social psychology attempts to understand the individual in interpersonal or group contexts (i.e., \u201cwhen placed in Situation A, how do people, in general, respond?\u201d), personality psychology investigates individual differences (i.e., \u201chow are people similar and different in how they respond to the same situation?\u201d). Personality psychology has a long history and, as such, is an extremely large and broad field that includes a large number of approaches. Discerning readers will quickly note that the current chapter is largely focused on what has come to be the most commonly studied perspective, the trait approach. Those readers interested in other approaches are referred to a number of resources focusing on Other Approaches within the diverse field.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0109","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,2,20]],"date-time":"2014-02-20T16:36:27Z","timestamp":1392914187000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Personality Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Robert D.","family":"Latzman","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Yuri","family":"Shishido","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,29]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Personality Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:31:31Z","timestamp":1632425491000},"score":9.570304,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0109.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,29]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0109","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,10,29]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:54Z","timestamp":1714731534584},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Science is communicative, based on the publication of scientific papers. It is the scientists\u2019 main task to disseminate their findings as far as possible. However, not every piece of scientific work will be published. Rather, many attempts at publication fail. They fail on different reasons: lack of substance, lack of methodological rigor, and lack of statistical significance. Research that has fatal methodological flaws, often identified in peer review, of course should not be published. With selective publication due to statistical reasons, often called reporting bias, the case is different. This is especially true for publication bias, a specific variety of reporting bias. Publication bias means failure to publish a scientific finding because the result falls short of the traditional significance value of p <.05. The current article begins with an overview of selectivity in publication processes. Then it discusses the nature and size of publication bias, in terms of prevalence, detection, and correction. It closes with an evaluation of corrective and prevention attempts.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0307","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,20]],"date-time":"2023-02-20T06:25:00Z","timestamp":1676874300000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Publication Bias in Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Anton","family":"K\u00fchberger","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,21]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Publication Bias in Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,20]],"date-time":"2023-02-20T06:25:00Z","timestamp":1676874300000},"score":9.570092,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0307.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,21]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0307","published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,21]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,1]],"date-time":"2025-11-01T05:00:58Z","timestamp":1761973258997,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"9780199828340"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The field of psychology and law involves the application of scientific, clinical, and policy aspects of psychology to issues that arise in the legal system. Diverse perspectives are encompassed within psychology and law, including most of the major subdivisions in psychology (e.g., cognitive, developmental, industrial\/organizational, and clinical). So, for example, cognitive psychologists may examine the reliability of eyewitness memory; developmental psychologists may assess the impact of maltreatment and abuse on social and cognitive development; industrial\/organizational psychologists may investigate how workplace conditions contribute to the incidence of sexual harassment; and clinical forensic psychologists may provide assessment and treatment services to courts and attorneys, law enforcement agencies, or offenders in correctional settings or under court supervision. In each of these instances, psychologists use research and\/or treatment protocols relevant to their specialization to address specific questions that emerge in the law. This article is organized around the intersection of those traditional subdivisions of psychology and the law. The field of psychology and law values contributions from professionals in a variety of different settings including university and research organizations, clinical practice, law enforcement agencies, correctional institutions, and other governmental and nonprofit agencies. It also values the contributions of professionals from across the globe, and associations devoted to psychology and law now exist in the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. Several specialized journals and book series are devoted exclusively to psycholegal matters. Undergraduate courses in psychology and law are increasingly common on college and university campuses. Various training programs prepare graduate and postgraduate students to address mental health issues in a variety of legal settings and to become the next generation of researchers, scholars, and practitioners. The American Board of Forensic Psychology and comparable organizations in other countries credential psychologists who specialize in clinical forensic issues, and an updated set of ethical guidelines has been developed specifically for their use. Psychologists have been involved in appellate court decisions by testifying in hearings and by making their research findings and policy analyses available to judges through amicus briefs submitted to the US Supreme Court and to lower courts.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0100","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]],"date-time":"2013-03-19T18:17:05Z","timestamp":1363717025000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Psychology and Law"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Kirk","family":"Heilbrun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Edie","family":"Greene","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Psychology and Law"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:28:51Z","timestamp":1632425331000},"score":9.570092,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0100.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0100","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:57:46Z","timestamp":1714730266642},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
At its inception as a specialty within psychology in the first decades of the 20th century, the history of psychology was usually conceived as an extension of the history of philosophy, with perhaps some special attention given to the development of modern science. Within the last thirty years, the history of psychology has come of age and has become as diverse as its sprawling subject: historical studies have proliferated as psychologists\u2019 activities have expanded and diversified. Alongside the original purpose of delineating the evolution of psychology from the historical roots of science, philosophy, medicine, and other intellectual traditions, recent histories of psychology have been very concerned with describing and explaining the social, organizational, and political context of psychological events and theories. Thus, the scholar of the history of any area of psychology would do well to become acquainted with other specialized literature not only of the specific area of psychology in which the historical events take place, but also of the political, social, and economic systems which condition them. Those with an interest in the history of any area of psychology which is not represented in any part of this necessarily selective article should adopt the attitude of confident pioneering which characterizes the leading historical scholarship in psychology today, school themselves in some basic techniques of historical investigation, and contribute to the further deepening and elaboration of our rich historical record. The timeframe of this article is the period from 1900 onward, mainly in the United States and Western Europe. This article contains a brief orientation and a section on the history of psychology as represented in Textbooks, classic and modern. There are also several sections expanding on the range of essential reference resources: Encyclopedias, Dictionaries, and Bibliographies; Compendia and Readers, along with collections of primary-source excerpts; Journals and blogs; Illustrations, Artifacts, and Archives; Timelines and Rankings of Eminence; Biography and Autobiography; and background about major Professional Organizations connected to the history of psychology. The philosophical context is represented by sections containing critiques of standard textbook history, sections that contextualize psychology\u2019s history within the philosophy of science (see History and Philosophy of Science), a section on disciplinary taxonomy organized around the question of the Unity vs. Diversity of Psychology, and a section on several \u201ccrises\u201d in 20th-century psychology. There is a selection of works surveying the transformation of psychology from science to applied technology (see the Transition from Science to Technology, 1880\u20131970). Histories of Subfields\u2014theoretical and applied, with a special section on clinical psychology\u2014are included, along with sections detailing the history of psychology in the contexts of Race, Ethnicity, and Culture as well as Gender. Finally, the section on Future Directions includes a selection of works pointing toward areas of potential future development in the field.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0064","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]],"date-time":"2013-03-19T18:17:05Z","timestamp":1363717025000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["History of Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"David C.","family":"Devonis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Wade","family":"Pickren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["History of Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:29:44Z","timestamp":1632425384000},"score":9.562033,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0064.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0064","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:57:55Z","timestamp":1714730275999},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Humanistic psychology emphasizes universal and individualized qualities of optimal well-being, the constructive use of creative potential, and the relational conditions that promote those qualities. It offers an alternative to mechanistic and\/or reductionistic psychological explanations based on isolated, static elements of observable behavior or mental processes. Humanistic psychologists believe that the technocratic assumptions and practices of the natural science approach conventionally adopted by psychologists in the interest of prediction, manipulation, and control of behavior are insufficient to capture the nuances of how human experience and behavior dynamically co-contextualize and co-constitute one another. They question (1) the unreflective placement of formal theory and hypothetico-deductive method before considerations of human subject matter, which includes the impetus to cast research participants in passive roles in the interest of mathematical precision, and (2) the tendency to prioritize methods that valorize probabilistic generalizability to the detriment of contextually situated perspectives gleaned from meaningful interaction. Likewise, they consider the rigid, uncritical employment of monolithic theories and preoccupation with technique in psychotherapy inappropriate for adequately understanding and addressing human suffering. In contrast, humanistic psychologists employ holistic-systemic and empathically attuned approaches in their therapeutic and research practices to understand lived experiences of individuals as active participants situated in their sociocultural and eco-psycho-spiritual contexts. A flexible, process-oriented, rigorously descriptive approach is favored to elucidate individual self-awareness and self-regulation and to explore how values (autonomy and commitment, freedom and responsibility, personal decision and receptive world-openness) influence both commonalities and divergences (that is, diversity) in human experience. The person is conceptualized as continually evolving, motivated by a need to progress toward greater levels of integrated interactive functioning, guided by intentionality and an ever-expanding awareness of self and others, with capacities for growth and change irrespective of past limitations and future uncertainties. Humanistic psychologists highlight overall maturity and the role of cooperative meaning making. This article begins with a list of sources for novices to obtain a \u201cbig picture\u201d view of humanistic psychology as written by humanistic psychologists (General Overviews and Textbooks), followed by a selection of edited volumes (Reference Works and Anthologies), peer-reviewed publications (Journals), and multimedia presentations (Online Resources) that feature the broad range of voices that constitute classic and contemporary humanistic psychology. Next, recommendations are provided for primary source writings on humanistic psychology theorizing and its underlying philosophy (Theory and Philosophy), and its practical applications in therapy and research (Applications). Finally, a review of sources on humanistic psychology\u2019s history, development, and influence (History, Development, and Influence) sets the stage for its contemporary applications: addressing cultural imbalances, technocracy and transhumanism, globalization, and climate change; enhancing education, career development, and leadership; promoting heroism, everyday creativity, and diagnostic alternatives (Contemporary Applications).<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0225","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,25]],"date-time":"2018-10-25T08:43:48Z","timestamp":1540457028000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Humanistic Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Andrew M.","family":"Bland","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Eugene M.","family":"DeRobertis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,25]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Humanistic Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,23]],"date-time":"2023-05-23T12:37:53Z","timestamp":1684845473000},"score":9.560466,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0225.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,25]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0225","published":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,25]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:23Z","timestamp":1714731503839},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Forensic psychology is an increasingly popular subset of psychology that broadly speaks to the intersection of psychology and the law. This broad view of forensic psychology encompasses legal and police psychology, some social psychology, and clinical and nonclinical psychological principles that are relevant to this intersection of psychology and law. This bibliography specifically focuses on clinical forensic psychology, the area of forensic psychology that deals directly with the assessment and treatment of those involved in the criminal, civil, and juvenile justice systems. As a result, the citations here do not reflect landmark legal cases, but rather emphasize historically relevant studies and works that have influenced the development of the practice of clinical forensic psychology and empirical articles that discuss important findings in each of the aspects of clinical forensic psychology that are outlined here. This field has grown rapidly in the past thirty years, and many of the sources discussed reflect upon this development and how this has influenced clinical practice. This bibliography contains a section with Textbooks and Handbooks with all other sections addressing Training Models and Graduate School, Assessment, Treatment, and Consultation, Expert Testimony and the Role of the Expert, Psychopathy, Violence Risk Assessment, Sexual Offenders, Civil Commitment, Adjudicative Competence, Insanity, Domestic Violence and Stalking, Juvenile Delinquency and Juvenile Justice, Child Custody Evaluations, Personal Injury and Discrimination in Civil Law, and a Miscellaneous category for some studies that don\u2019t quite fit into these other categories.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0248","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,31]],"date-time":"2019-07-31T07:27:10Z","timestamp":1564558030000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Forensic Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Alison B.","family":"Concannon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Matthew T.","family":"Huss","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,31]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Forensic Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:26:29Z","timestamp":1632425189000},"score":9.559755,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0248.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,31]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0248","published":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,31]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:48Z","timestamp":1714731528463},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Simpson\u2019s paradox\u2014also called the reversal paradox and amalgamation paradox\u2014is a statistical phenomenon in which an apparent paradox arises because aggregate data at the group level (or at the level of a set of groups) can support a conclusion that is either not observed or is opposite from that suggested by the same data before aggregation at the individual level (or at the level of groups). The paradox is resolved when the data are stratified by groups in the statistical modeling. An intuitive example of Simpson\u2019s paradox is the correlation between typing speed and typos. At the group level, the correlation is negative\u2014experienced typists type faster and make fewer typos. However, at the individual level, the correlation is positive\u2014the faster an individual types, the greater the number of typos he\/she makes. Thus, it would be fallacious to conclude that the relationship between typing speed and typos observed at the group level holds at the individual level. Simpson\u2019s paradox is especially problematic in physical and social sciences, where statistical trends in point data observed at the group level are often fallaciously used to derive inferences about individuals, or relatively less often, the other way round. Hence, equivalence at the group and individual levels must be explicitly tested.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0301","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,28]],"date-time":"2022-11-28T10:17:45Z","timestamp":1669630665000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Simpson's Paradox in Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Madhur","family":"Mangalam","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,29]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Simpson's Paradox in Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,28]],"date-time":"2022-11-28T10:17:45Z","timestamp":1669630665000},"score":9.556249,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0301.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,29]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0301","published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,29]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:44Z","timestamp":1714731524972},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
School psychologists can provide an important contribution through the provision of counseling services. While psychological assessment remains a foundation area separating school psychologists from other disciplines, counseling services offer school psychological service models an important juncture for impacting a multiplicity of psychological, familial, and school problems. Given the diversity of counseling services provided within modern schools, though, school psychologists and support professionals often lack critical information on the role school psychologists can play in providing a wide spectrum of counseling services. This article considers contemporary mental health issues impacting children, examines individual and group counseling models, considers newer research involving family counseling within the schools, and discusses legal challenges.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0257","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,25]],"date-time":"2021-10-25T14:16:52Z","timestamp":1635171412000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Counseling Services in School Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,15]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Counseling Services in School Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,10,25]],"date-time":"2021-10-25T14:16:52Z","timestamp":1635171412000},"score":9.545885,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0257.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,15]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0257","published":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,15]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:56Z","timestamp":1714731536046},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Correspondence analysis (CA) is a statistical method of multivariate analysis, which applies to a rectangular table of categorical data, with a wide range of applications in the social sciences, as well as in ecology, archaeology, and linguistics. This bibliography focuses primarily on its development and applications in the field of psychology, where it is often difficult to grasp the interrelationships between observed variables that are generally on categorical scales. The method has several historical origins and equivalent definitions. One of the earliest, due to the eminent British statistician Ronald A. Fisher, defines the method as a way of quantifying the categories of two categorical variables, that is, assigning scale values to the categories, with the objective of maximizing their discriminatory power, equivalent to maximizing their correlation. This idea was generalized to quantifying more than two categorical variables by the psychologist Louis Guttman. The same idea formed the basis of two research schools, led by Chikio Hayashi in Japan, and Jan de Leeuw in the Netherlands. The French linguist and mathematician Jean-Paul Benz\u00e9cri realized the geometric interpretation of CA and developed the method as a tool for visualizing categorical data, which is its most popular application today. Simple CA visualizes the rows and columns of a two-way table as points in a spatial map, where the association between the row and column categories can be directly interpreted. When the table is a cross-tabulation called a contingency table, CA thus goes beyond the typical measurement and test of row\u2013column association (e.g., the chi-square test) by explicitly showing what the main features of that association are. The generalization of the method, called multiple correspondence analysis (MCA), analyzes more than two categorical variables simultaneously and is routinely used to understand patterns of response in questionnaire surveys that involve many questions with categorical responses. All forms of CA are variants of principal component analysis (PCA), with two important generalizations of the regular way PCA is defined and used: (i) the distance function used to measure differences between the categories, called the chi-square distance, and (ii) the weighting of the categories proportional to their marginal sums. CA has been developed in a similar way to PCA, for example by introducing linear restrictions, where it is called canonical correspondence analysis (CCA), similarly to redundancy analysis (RDA) for PCA. Categorical PCA (CatPCA) is also a special restricted case of MCA.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0311","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,23]],"date-time":"2023-05-23T12:36:42Z","timestamp":1684845402000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Correspondence Analysis in Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Michael","family":"Greenacre","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Correspondence Analysis in Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,23]],"date-time":"2023-05-23T12:36:43Z","timestamp":1684845403000},"score":9.541768,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/display\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0311.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0311","published":{"date-parts":[[2023,5,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:58:04Z","timestamp":1714730284486},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Clinical psychology is a broad discipline that focuses on the assessment, diagnosis, etiology (causes), treatment, and prevention of mental disorders. Many clinical psychologists work in practice settings and perform psychotherapy, assessment, or both; others conduct research and teach in academic settings, such as colleges, universities, and medical centers; still others perform a mix of clinical work, research, and teaching. Today, clinical psychology is a vibrant profession that has contributed substantially to our understanding of the measurement, diagnosis, causes, and treatment of a host of psychological conditions, including mood, anxiety, personality, psychotic, eating, and sleep disorders. More than two hundred clinical psychology graduate programs are recognized as formally accredited by the American Psychological Association (APA), and two major models of training continue to influence the field. The scientist-practitioner, or Boulder, model was launched following a 1949 conference at the University of Colorado at Boulder. This model, spearheaded by the psychologist David Shakow, is intended to train students broadly to become scientists, clinicians, or both, and encourages them to apply scientific thinking and knowledge to all aspects of their work. Most Boulder-model programs award the PhD degree. The scholar-professional, or Vail, model was launched following a 1973 conference in Vail, Colorado. This model substantially deemphasizes research training in the education of graduate students, and instead focuses on providing students with the knowledge and skills to operate as thoughtful and scholarly psychotherapists and assessors in clinical settings. Most Vail-model programs award the PsyD (doctor of psychology) degree. More recently, a third model, the clinical scientist model, was introduced by Indiana University clinical psychologist Richard McFall in the early 1990s. Although the meaning of this model continues to evolve, the clinical scientist model strongly emphasizes scientific training throughout all components of clinical psychology graduate-school programs. It insists that regardless of whether students become therapists, researchers, teachers, or consultants upon their graduation, they must be rigorous scientific thinkers. In 2008 proponents of the clinical scientist model initiated a new system for accrediting clinical psychology graduate programs; this new system, called the Psychological Clinical Science Accreditation System (PCSAS), will only accredit clinical psychology graduate programs that train rigorous clinical psychology researchers. The full impact of the PCSAS system on clinical psychology graduate training, and on the profession of clinical psychology at large, remains to be seen.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0014","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]],"date-time":"2013-03-19T18:17:05Z","timestamp":1363717025000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Clinical Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Joanna","family":"Berg","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Rachel","family":"Ammirati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Scott O.","family":"Lilienfeld","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,6,26]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Clinical Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:25:44Z","timestamp":1632425144000},"score":9.538854,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0014.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2012,6,26]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0014","published":{"date-parts":[[2012,6,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,9,8]],"date-time":"2024-09-08T08:12:24Z","timestamp":1725783144763},"edition-number":"0","reference-count":1,"publisher":"Routledge","isbn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"9781315869858"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,27]]},"DOI":"10.4324\/9781315869858-37","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,25]],"date-time":"2020-12-25T13:19:38Z","timestamp":1608902378000},"page":"309-318","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Self Psychology\u2014A Structural Psychology"],"prefix":"10.4324","member":"301","reference":[{"key":"ref24","unstructured":"Atwood, G. & Stolorow, R. (1980). Psychoanalytic concepts and the representational world. Psychoanal. Contemp. Thought 3: 267-290."}],"container-title":["Reflections on Self Psychology (Psychology Revivals)"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2020,12,25]],"date-time":"2020-12-25T13:20:00Z","timestamp":1608902400000},"score":9.5307255,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.taylorfrancis.com\/books\/9781317970941\/chapters\/10.4324\/9781315869858-37"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,27]]},"ISBN":["9781315869858"],"references-count":1,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.4324\/9781315869858-37","published":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,27]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T09:57:49Z","timestamp":1714730269467},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
The central questions of child social development bear upon the essential nature of human existence, including the lasting importance of the infant\u2019s first social relationships, the stability of human personality, nature-nurture, the way to properly socialize children to be moral and successful, and the importance of family and friends. Social development research has broad relevance to issues in education, public policy, prevention, social work, and the life sciences. In this overview, we begin with some basic information on source material, history, and common journals in the field. Then comes coverage of critical issues in the child\u2019s early social development: attachment to a loving adult, the importance of temperament, the study of genetic and other biological factors in development, and the relationship between ontogeny (the development of the individual) and phylogeny (the development of the species). Next comes a focus on some key behaviors that are seen as essential for successful socialization: moral and prosocial behavior, the motivation to achieve, and (the lack of) aggressive and antisocial behavior. We consider classic and recent research on the role of gender, ethnicity, and intergroup relations on children\u2019s development as children learn to be part of a larger society. Finally comes research on two critical domains of influence in children\u2019s social development: families and peers. The field of children\u2019s social development is vibrant, exciting, and increasingly interconnected with other areas in prevention, education, and the biological and social sciences.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0090","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,3,19]],"date-time":"2013-03-19T18:17:05Z","timestamp":1363717025000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Developmental Psychology (Social)"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Philip C.","family":"Rodkin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Glenn I.","family":"Roisman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Developmental Psychology (Social)"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,23]],"date-time":"2021-09-23T19:28:57Z","timestamp":1632425337000},"score":9.491679,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0090.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0090","published":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,26]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,3]],"date-time":"2024-05-03T10:18:51Z","timestamp":1714731531342},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780199828340","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"abstract":"
Categorical data are data for which at least one dependent (outcome) variable is nominal or ordinal. Nominal variables, such as gender, ethnicity, religion, and graduation (or successful completion of any course of study), have a limited number of possible values. Categorical variables are generally divided into two major classes: dichotomous (binary) variables, which have two values (e.g., success vs. failure), and polytomous, which have more than two categories. Polytomous variables are further divided into ordered (ordinal) or unordered. Ordinal variables may have a limited number of categories (such as Likert scales) or a potentially unlimited number of categories, usually a count (e.g., number of times a student interrupts a class). Historical treatment of such data normally involved what was termed nonparametric statistics (e.g., chi-square tests of independence), and involved simple data structures (often just two variables). These methods have evolved to include a wide variety of extensions, including latent variables, graphical causal models, and tree-based methods.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0306","type":"reference-entry","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,11]],"date-time":"2023-01-11T02:48:20Z","timestamp":1673405300000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Categorical Data Analysis in Psychology"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"David","family":"Rindskopf","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]},"container-title":["Psychology"],"original-title":["Categorical Data Analysis in Psychology"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,11]],"date-time":"2023-01-11T02:48:20Z","timestamp":1673405300000},"score":9.47888,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/oxfordbibliographies.com\/view\/document\/obo-9780199828340\/obo-9780199828340-0306.xml"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]},"ISBN":["9780199828340"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/obo\/9780199828340-0306","published":{"date-parts":[[2023,1,12]]}}],"items-per-page":20,"query":{"start-index":0,"search-terms":"Psychology"}}}