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To fill this gap, this article analyses racial and ethnic differences in pension coverage in Colombia. Since racial and ethnic minorities in Colombia are disproportionally poor, old\u2010age pensions are especially important for these marginalized populations. The article finds that indigenous and, to a lesser extent, afro\u2010Colombians and their partners are significantly less likely to contribute to any pension programme than non\u2010minorities. Much \u2013 but not all \u2013 of this gap can be explained by educational and occupational differences.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1111\/issr.12384","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,12]],"date-time":"2025-03-12T10:54:41Z","timestamp":1741776881000},"page":"107-125","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Racial and ethnic inequalities in pension insurance coverage in Colombia"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"78","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0255-8246","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kristin J.","family":"Kleinjans","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics California State University  United States"}]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_6_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/issr.12135","article-title":"The gender gap in pensions in Latin America","volume":"70","author":"Amarante V.","year":"2017","journal-title":"International Social Security Review"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_3_1","unstructured":"Arenas de Mesa A.2020.Los sistemas de pensiones in Am\u00e9rica latina: institucionalidad gasto p\u00fablico y sostenibilidad financiero en tiempos del COVID\u201019(Serie Macroeconom\u00eda del Desarrollo No. 212) (LC\/TS.2020\/99). Santiago Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_4_1","volume-title":"Estudios y cifras: Mayo","author":"Asofondos","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_5_1","volume-title":"Los principios de la seguridad social y la reforma de las pensiones en Colombia","author":"Casal\u00ed P.","year":"2020"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_6_1","unstructured":"Clavijo S.2023.Reforma pensional e informalidad laboral en Colombia(Documento CEDE Debate No. 9). Bogot\u00e1 Universidad de los Andes \u2013 Facultad de Econom\u00eda."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_7_1","volume-title":"Lo \u201cesencial\u201d de la Reforma Pensional en Colombia","author":"Clavijo S.","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_8_1","unstructured":"DANE.2019a.Seg\u00fan el Censo Nacional de Poblaci\u00f3n y Vivienda 2018 la poblaci\u00f3n que se autorreconoce como gitana o Rrom en el pa\u00eds es 2.649(Comunicado de Prensa) (Entrega de resultados poblaci\u00f3n ind\u00edgena; Censo Nacional de Poblaci\u00f3n y Vivienda 2018). Bogot\u00e1 Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estad\u00edstica."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_9_1","unstructured":"DANE.2019b.Ante la Comisi\u00f3n Primera de la C\u00e1mara de Representantes el DANE determin\u00f3 que en 2018 la poblaci\u00f3n negra afrocolombiana raizal y palenquera es de 4.671.160 personas(Comunicado de Prensa) (Debate de control pol\u00edtico \u2013 Resultados Poblaci\u00f3n Negra Afrocolombiana Raizal y Palenquera (NARP); Censo Nacional de Poblaci\u00f3n y Vivienda 2018). Bogot\u00e1 Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estad\u00edstica."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_10_1","series-title":"Nota Estad\u00edstica","volume-title":"Personas mayors en Colombia: Hacia la inclusi\u00f3n y la participaci\u00f3n","author":"DANE","year":"2021"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_11_1","series-title":"Bolein T\u00e9cnico, Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares","volume-title":"Ocupaci\u00f3n informal, Trimestre enero\u2010marzo 2024","author":"DANE","year":"2024"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_12_1","unstructured":"Delgado J. D.2020. \u201cComo evitar que el coronavirus profundice la desigualdad racial en Colombia\u201d inThe New York Times 29 April."},{"key":"e_1_2_6_13_1","unstructured":"FIAP.2022.Recent proposals for improving Colombia\u2019s pension system(Pension Notes No. 64). Santiago Federaci\u00f3n Internacional de Administradoras de Fondos de Pensiones."},{"issue":"3","key":"e_1_2_6_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1377\/hlthaff.2017.1284","article-title":"Social pension income associated with small improvements in self\u2010reported health of poor older men in Colombia","volume":"37","author":"Hessel P.","year":"2018","journal-title":"Health Affairs"},{"issue":"76","key":"e_1_2_6_15_1","article-title":"Association between social pensions with depression, social, and health behaviors among poor older individuals in Colombia","volume":"76","author":"Hessel P.","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journals of Gerontology: Social Sciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_2_6_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1111\/1468-246X.00148","article-title":"The Colombian pension system after the reform of 1994: An evaluation","volume":"56","author":"Kleinjans K. J.","year":"2003","journal-title":"International Social Security Review"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_17_1","series-title":"Borradores de Econom\u00eda, No. 1078","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.32468\/be.1078","volume-title":"El sistema pensional en Colombia","author":"L\u00f3pez M.","year":"2019"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_18_1","volume-title":"Evaluation of four decades of pension privatization in Latin America, 1980\u20102020: Promises and reality","author":"Mesa\u2010Lago C.","year":"2020"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/issr.12266"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_20_1","volume-title":"An\u00e1lisis y recomendationes sobre las reformas laboral y pensional","author":"Mejia L. F.","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_21_1","volume-title":"Socioeconomic and political outlook of Afro\u2010Colombian","author":"Ministerio de Cultura","year":"2009"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_22_1","volume-title":"Bolet\u00edn de seguridad social No. 14 \u2013 II semestre","author":"Ministerio de Hacienda y Cr\u00e9dito P\u00fablico","year":"2022"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_23_1","article-title":"La invisibilidad estad\u00edstica de las personas afro en Colombia se siente en sus vidas","author":"Palomino S.","year":"2023","journal-title":"El Pa\u00eds"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.32468\/be.1229","volume-title":"Panorama fiscal de las pensiones en Colombia","author":"Parra\u2010Polan\u00eda J. A.","year":"2023"},{"issue":"63","key":"e_1_2_6_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.25100\/cdea.v35i63.6139","article-title":"Real returns of private pension funds in Colombia","volume":"35","author":"Salazar Guatibonza F. 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M.","year":"2020","journal-title":"IZA Journal of Labor Policy"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_27_1","volume-title":"Social security programs throughout the world: The Americas, 2019","author":"SSA","year":"2020"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_28_1","volume-title":"Carta circular 09 de 2024","author":"Superintendencia Financiera de Colombia","year":"2024"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_29_1","volume-title":"Informe de rentabilidad fondos de pensiones obligatorias","author":"Superintendencia Financiera de Colombia","year":"2024"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_30_1","volume-title":"An\u00e1lisis de situaci\u00f3n de poblaci\u00f3n (ASP Colombia 2023)","author":"UNFPA","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_31_1","volume-title":"Mercado laboral de los grupos \u00e9tnicos\u2010raciales en Colombia antes y despu\u00e9s de los confinamientos por el Covid\u201019","author":"Urrea\u2010Giraldo F.","year":"2023"},{"key":"e_1_2_6_32_1","volume-title":"World Development Indicators: Colombia","author":"World Bank","year":"2023"}],"container-title":["International Social Security Review"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1111\/issr.12384","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,12]],"date-time":"2025-03-12T10:56:24Z","timestamp":1741776984000},"score":35.713173,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1111\/issr.12384"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1111\/issr.12384"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/issr.12384","archive":["Portico"],"ISSN":["0020-871X","1468-246X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0020-871X","type":"print"},{"value":"1468-246X","type":"electronic"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2025-03-12","order":3,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,14]],"date-time":"2024-12-14T05:18:59Z","timestamp":1734153539236,"version":"3.30.2"},"description":"This dataset presents the positions and flows of pension liabilities in all pension schemes that are considered to be part of social insurance, as well as the corresponding entitlements as seen from the viewpoint of (resident and non-resident) households, including social insurance pension entitlements of resident households accrued abroad.","reference-count":0,"publisher":"OECD","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"content-updated":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,10]]},"DOI":"10.1787\/d6823314-en","type":"dataset","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,21]],"date-time":"2021-07-21T09:47:16Z","timestamp":1626860836000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Social insurance pension schemes"],"prefix":"10.1787","member":"1963","content-created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,20]]},"container-title":["OECD National Accounts Statistics"],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,13]],"date-time":"2024-12-13T10:48:50Z","timestamp":1734086930000},"score":35.495262,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/data-explorer.oecd.org\/vis?df[ds]=DisseminateFinalDMZ&df[id]=DSD_NAPENS@DF_TABLE29&df[ag]=OECD.SDD.NAD"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,20]]},"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1787\/d6823314-en","published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,20]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,11]],"date-time":"2025-03-11T04:28:34Z","timestamp":1741667314407,"version":"3.38.0"},"reference-count":9,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2001,6,1]],"date-time":"2001-06-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":991353600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["European Journal of Social Security"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2001,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> Since the early 1990s, there has been no widow's pension in Swedish social insurance. This is consistent with the aim of implementing an individual model, in pursuit of the goal of economic independence for all adults. However, both a widow's and a widower's pension are included in occupational insurance schemes. In Sweden, these are based on collective labour market agreements and cover almost all employees. The survivors' pension can be seen as an annual non-wage benefit. As such, it should be taken into account when remuneration from work between different socio-economic groups is compared. However, we cannot directly observe the individual value of mandatory collective insurance. This article is an original attempt to determine the individual value of certain occupational and social insurance rights. A money value for earnings-related survivors' pension rights is estimated and added to the money wage to create an extended wage measure. We use Swedish microdata to analyze what the inclusion of different insurance rights might mean for wage differentials and wage dispersion. The study indicates that wage inequality is understated when non-wage benefits in the form of survivors' pension rights are excluded from the compensation measure and that a more complete picture of wage differentials is obtained when these rights are accounted for. If we were able to consider differences in survivors' pension rights between countries, this would be a step towards more complete wage comparisons between the different EU-countries. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1023\/a:1011930607496","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2002,12,23]],"date-time":"2002-12-23T11:29:09Z","timestamp":1040642949000},"page":"117-136","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Survivors' Pension Rights in Occupational and Social Insurance: The Swedish Experience"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"3","author":[{"given":"Jan","family":"Sel\u00e9n","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Ann-Charlotte","family":"St\u00e5hlberg","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2001,6,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-A-1011930607496","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-5890.1998.tb00293.x"},{"volume-title":"Differences and Changes in Wage Structures","year":"1995","author":"Edin P.A.","key":"bibr2-A-1011930607496"},{"volume-title":"A Study of Fringe Benefits","year":"1998","author":"Granquist L.","key":"bibr3-A-1011930607496"},{"volume-title":"Essays on Family and Labor Economics","year":"1997","author":"Richardson K.","key":"bibr4-A-1011930607496"},{"volume-title":"IFAU Working paper Series 2000:5","year":"2000","author":"Richardson K.","key":"bibr5-A-1011930607496"},{"volume-title":"Working Paper 1996:2","year":"1996","author":"Sel\u00e9n J.","key":"bibr6-A-1011930607496"},{"key":"bibr7-A-1011930607496","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9914.00062"},{"key":"bibr8-A-1011930607496","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010098721113"},{"key":"bibr9-A-1011930607496","first-page":"222","volume-title":"Adult Mortality in Developed Countries: From Description to Explanation","author":"V\u00e5ger\u00f6 D.","year":"1995"}],"container-title":["European Journal of Social Security"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1023\/A%3A1011930607496","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1023\/A%3A1011930607496","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,10]],"date-time":"2025-03-10T18:25:18Z","timestamp":1741631118000},"score":35.49089,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1023\/A%3A1011930607496"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2001,6]]},"references-count":9,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2001,6]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1023\/A:1011930607496"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1023\/a:1011930607496","ISSN":["1388-2627","2399-2948"],"issn-type":[{"type":"print","value":"1388-2627"},{"type":"electronic","value":"2399-2948"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[2001,6]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,26]],"date-time":"2023-10-26T21:28:20Z","timestamp":1698355700189},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,18]],"date-time":"2007-12-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1197936000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":5374,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Int Social Security Review"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1993,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>One of the principal developments of our time in the field of social security policy has been the growing importance of the desire of individuals for greater economic security in their old age. This desire has in its turn given rise to an increasing tendency to seek benefits complementing those offered or promised by public social insurance schemes. In Europe and North America private enterprise has for many years played an active role in the field of complementary provident arrangements; but in the countries of Latin America interest in schemes of this kind has only begun to develop in recent years. A study of the present situation shows a need to establish concepts permitting an objective approach to the problem of whether \u2014 and ultimately, how \u2014 a modern State can succeed in striking a satisfactory balance between public intervention and private enterprise in the field of provision against deferred risks or, if it cannot do so, what the prospects are for the securing of a better future by present\u2010day society and how that goal could be achieved. A reform of provident systems in Latin America is inevitable. 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