The enactment of Jamaica\u2019s independence in Kingston on 6 August 1962 did not sweep away the colonial structures that had been put in place for the previous three centuries. Constitutional change had been taking place since 1944, but unemployment and dependence on the informal sector of the economy, coupled to poor housing and slum formation, could not be put right in short order. This chapter focuses on employment\/unemployment and housing issues in Kingston in the first decades after independence, and makes a direct comparison with conditions in the last years of colonialism. A major new policy introduced after sovereignty was structural adjustment, which began to be implemented in a systematic way in the 1980s, and has had a substantial\u2014and negative\u2014impact on the lower class. Academic opinion suggests that the Latin American and Caribbean city has been doubly undermined during the last half century: first, by massive population increase following 1950, as the balance of the population has shifted from predominantly rural to overwhelmingly urban; and, secondly, by structural adjustment, which, since the late 1970s, has undone or undermined many of the solutions to urbanization previously achieved by grassroots endeavour in the face of labour-intensive capitalism\u2014for example, the provision of shelter through self-help housing of the squatter kind. In short, whatever benefits late twentieth-century globalization has brought to Latin American and the Caribbean, there have been massive losers among the urban poor (Clarke and Howard 1999). This chapter modifies many, but not all, of these generalizations in the case of Kingston. While its formerly protected economy has been turned inside out by structural adjustment, Jamaica\u2019s economy, even prior to independence, was small, open, and therefore potentially vulnerable; and Kingston was already a classic example of an overcrowded metropolis with a weak industrial base. The introduction of structural adjustment in Jamaica has increased unemployment or withdrawal from the labourforce, and impacted on the housing situation among the lower class, without\u2014in the case of Jamaica\u2014increasing economic growth. However, in Kingston, once the immediate impact of structural adjustment was over, a static or slowly declining urban economy has gone hand in hand with a gradual reduction (so the data show) of the highest levels of unemployment and a substantial improvement in housing provision and quality, despite the fact that more than half the labourforce is in the informal sector.<\/p>","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780199269815.003.0011","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,11]],"date-time":"2020-11-11T01:38:49Z","timestamp":1605058729000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Urbanization in Kingston since Independence"],"prefix":"10.1093","author":[{"given":"Colin","family":"Clarke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,12]]},"container-title":["Decolonizing the Colonial City"],"original-title":["Urbanization in Kingston since Independence"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]],"date-time":"2022-08-02T21:05:18Z","timestamp":1659474318000},"score":22.48855,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/book\/40688\/chapter\/348390684"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2006,8,31]]},"ISBN":["9780199269815","9780191919312"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/oso\/9780199269815.003.0011","published":{"date-parts":[[2006,8,31]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,30]],"date-time":"2022-03-30T20:27:04Z","timestamp":1648672024062},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["The Journal of American History"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1970,12]]},"DOI":"10.2307\/1918045","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2006,5,5]],"date-time":"2006-05-05T01:29:18Z","timestamp":1146792558000},"page":"747","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["City and Country: Rural Response to Urbanization in the 1920s"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"57","author":[{"given":"Frederick C.","family":"Luebke","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]},{"given":"Don S.","family":"Kirschner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[]}],"member":"286","container-title":["The Journal of American History"],"link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jah\/article-pdf\/57\/3\/747\/2292759\/57-3-747.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2017,8,23]],"date-time":"2017-08-23T14:41:09Z","timestamp":1503499269000},"score":22.170063,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/jah\/article-lookup\/doi\/10.2307\/1918045"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[1970,12]]},"references-count":0,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1970,12]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/1918045","ISSN":["0021-8723"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0021-8723","type":"print"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[1970,12]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,23]],"date-time":"2026-02-23T20:09:42Z","timestamp":1771877382193,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"British Academy","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780197263259","type":"print"},{"value":"9780191734618","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2005,10,27]]},"abstract":"
This chapter examines the role of commodities and their movements to the complex processes of change and urbanization in the Greek world. It suggests that economies of urban centers emerged out of, and came to reside in, the consumption of goods driven by fashion, as many people in fluid political and social settings use goods to display their political aims and construct social ambitions. Thus, the increasing numbers of communities that might seriously be called urban by the sixth century could be considered, in the most literal sense, as consumer cities.<\/p>","DOI":"10.5871\/bacad\/9780197263259.003.0011","type":"book-chapter","created":{"date-parts":[[2012,2,10]],"date-time":"2012-02-10T15:16:58Z","timestamp":1328887018000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Village to City: Staples and Luxuries? Exchange Networks and Urbanization"],"prefix":"10.5871","author":[{"given":"Lin","family":"Foxhall","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"3895","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2012,1,31]]},"container-title":["Mediterranean Urbanization 800-600 BC"],"original-title":["Village to City: Staples and Luxuries? Exchange Networks and Urbanization"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,8,2]],"date-time":"2022-08-02T16:33:10Z","timestamp":1659457990000},"score":22.076088,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/british-academy-scholarship-online\/book\/13116\/chapter\/166373900"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[2005,10,27]]},"ISBN":["9780197263259","9780191734618"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.5871\/bacad\/9780197263259.003.0011","published":{"date-parts":[[2005,10,27]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,24]],"date-time":"2023-11-24T02:10:27Z","timestamp":1700791827433},"reference-count":0,"publisher":"Wiley","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2009,10,28]],"date-time":"2009-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1256688000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":10103,"URL":"http:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/termsAndConditions#vor"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["American Anthropologist"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1982,3]]},"DOI":"10.1525\/aa.1982.84.1.02a00790","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2004,11,23]],"date-time":"2004-11-23T21:06:06Z","timestamp":1101243966000},"page":"235-237","update-policy":"http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1002\/crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cultural\/Applied: Country to City: The Urbanization of a Japanese Hamlet. Edward Norbeck.<\/i>"],"prefix":"10.1111","volume":"84","author":[{"given":"Keith","family":"Brown","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"311","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2009,10,28]]},"container-title":["American Anthropologist"],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/api.wiley.com\/onlinelibrary\/tdm\/v1\/articles\/10.1525%2Faa.1982.84.1.02a00790","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1525\/aa.1982.84.1.02a00790","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,24]],"date-time":"2023-11-24T01:30:36Z","timestamp":1700789436000},"score":21.8862,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/10.1525\/aa.1982.84.1.02a00790"}},"issued":{"date-parts":[[1982,3]]},"references-count":0,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1982,3]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1525\/aa.1982.84.1.02a00790"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1525\/aa.1982.84.1.02a00790","archive":["Portico"],"ISSN":["0002-7294","1548-1433"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0002-7294","type":"print"},{"value":"1548-1433","type":"electronic"}],"published":{"date-parts":[[1982,3]]},"assertion":[{"value":"2009-10-28","order":2,"name":"published","label":"Published","group":{"name":"publication_history","label":"Publication History"}}]},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T01:28:46Z","timestamp":1772242126919,"version":"3.50.1"},"edition-number":"1","reference-count":0,"publisher":"Princeton University Press","isbn-type":[{"value":"9780691158853","type":"print"},{"value":"9781400848850","type":"electronic"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,8]]},"abstract":"
Since its initial publication in 1965, this book has been hailed as a classic for its nuanced exploration of the relationships among the rise of urban civilization, the decline of hierarchical, institutional religion, and the place of the secular within society. Now, half a century later, this international best seller remains as relevant as when it first appeared. The book's arguments\u2014that secularity has a positive effect on institutions, that the city can be a space where people of all faiths fulfil their potential, and that God is present in both the secular and formal religious realms\u2014still resonate with readers of all backgrounds. This brand-new edition includes a substantial and updated introduction. The author reflects on the book's initial stunning success in an age of political and religious upheaval and makes the case for its enduring relevance at a time when the debates that the book helped ignite have caught fire once again.<\/p>","DOI":"10.23943\/princeton\/9780691158853.001.0001","type":"monograph","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,11,21]],"date-time":"2017-11-21T07:51:46Z","timestamp":1511250706000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":30,"title":["The Secular City"],"prefix":"10.23943","author":[{"given":"Harvey","family":"Cox","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"10341","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,10,19]]},"original-title":["The Secular City"],"language":"en","deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,28]],"date-time":"2022-07-28T10:35:38Z","timestamp":1659004538000},"score":21.641422,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/princeton-scholarship-online\/book\/14741"}},"subtitle":["Secularization and Urbanization in Theological Perspective"],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,8]]},"ISBN":["9780691158853","9781400848850"],"references-count":0,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.23943\/princeton\/9780691158853.001.0001","relation":{"is-identical-to":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1515\/9781400848850","asserted-by":"subject"},{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.2307\/j.ctt32bc8n","asserted-by":"object"}]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,9,8]]}},{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]],"date-time":"2026-02-08T00:01:52Z","timestamp":1770508912065,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"Informa UK Limited","issue":"4","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Journal of Southern African Studies"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1997,12]]},"DOI":"10.1080\/03057079708708558","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,7,7]],"date-time":"2007-07-07T18:26:19Z","timestamp":1183832779000},"page":"565-584","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["The drama of country and city: tribalization, urbanization and theatre under apartheid"],"prefix":"10.1080","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Loren","family":"Kruger","sequence":"first","affiliation":[]}],"member":"301","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2007,2,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"CIT0001","unstructured":"Williams , Raymond . 1973.The Country and the City307London"},{"key":"CIT0002","unstructured":"Williams .Country and City1"},{"key":"CIT0003","first-page":"232","volume-title":"Views Beyond the Border Country. 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In this sequel to Kingston, Jamaica: Urban Development and Social Change, 1692 to 1962 (1975) Colin Clarke investigates the role of class, colour, race, and culture in the changing social stratification and spatial patterning of Kingston, Jamaica since independence in 1962. He also assesses the strains - created by the doubling of the population - on labour and housing markets, which are themselves important ingredients in urban social stratification. Special attention is also given to colour, class, and race segregation, to the formation of the Kingston ghetto, to the role of politics in the creation of zones of violence and drug trading in downtown Kingston, and to the contribution of the arts to the evolution of national culture. A special feature is the inclusion of multiple maps produced and compiled using GIS (geographical information systems). 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